pulsESG

Originally, Bitcoin came to the fore as a potential tool for disrupting the financial system. Despite all criticisms and attacks, it has done exactly that, as evidenced by the launch of Bitcoin Spot ETFs, with a subsequent rise to all-time highs above $70,000. Yet other industries are set for disruption. Content creation has yet to transition to Web3. Think about Amazon Kindle or the mainstream media, which are still centrally owned but command huge budgets and influence. Hollywood and traditional entertainment are losing subscribers and fans, and brands like Marvel and DC are still running on old stories that were created decades ago. Ultimately, people want to release their own stories and be able to make money from their creativity without paying centralized actors. The Content Creation Industry Traditionally, it was incredibly difficult to get a book published. Even J.K Rowling was rejected by twelve different editors before finally getting published, as one of the most popular franchises of all time. She’s now worth over $1 Billion. This difficulty changed a lot with the rise of self-publishing tools, most notably Amazon Kindle and its impressive range of tools for both writing and marketing. Online sites Hackernoon offers a Web 2.5 approach that allows people to publish their views, with neat tools and light moderation. But for a pure experience, the entire network has to be user-powered with fully equitable rewards, and little to no censorship. Users should have the features to create and release content quickly, without third parties. And with multiple revenue options. Innovative Web3 ecosystems like Lightning Works (LW) do precisely this. Artists can create and release their own comics with the help of AI. LW has already released some of its own comics, aiming to start its own franchise with its own heroes, with the help of former Marvel, DC, and Disney artists and executives. It is redefining content creation as we know it, with a user-empowerment focus. This comes at a time when the power of Hollywood is waning and streaming has been shown to be a money-losing way to deliver content.  The world is ready for a new business model, and Web3 can solve this problem. Social Media vs Publishing vs Content Creation It has become a little difficult to delineate between content creation, publishing, and social media. There are new media formats coming to prominence and as users become more empowered, they take on the role of creators and publishers. The publishing industry traditionally referred to the release of books from prestigious firms, as well as the publication from mainstream media outlets (the MSM). But both of these have lost tremendous power, as faith in the MSM wanes and readers now gravitate to online formats. Social media is another form of content creation with more features made available for a variety of self-expression. However, there are many concerns about de-platforming as well as online censorship. Bluesky is a Web3 social media platform that deviated from Twitter. It’s technically an open messaging protocol - users can subscribe to the tags and groups that meet their preferences. In this way, they are effectively becoming their own moderators. Most importantly, creators are independent from platforms, being able to take content and contacts with them. The same theme is reflected in the gaming industry. Hexacore offers self publishing for games developers, with true digital ownership. It provides a hybrid monetization model with both free to play and play to own multiplayer games, and users can create their own in-game characters using AI. Meme Generation: Advanced Communication Evolved Through Web3 Memes, often misunderstood as mere internet jokes, are powerful forms of content creation that have reshaped communication. These cultural symbols harness the ability to convey complex messages and emotions swiftly and effectively. They have gotten a bad reputation due to their degenerative nature. But their power and impact cannot be denied, with huge trading volumes and massive user bases. Wall Street Memes, the Gamestop Saga, Dogecoin and more have risen from ‘mere’ meme status to cultural icons of their respective industries, ‘champions’ of the retail class of consumers, relatable to the extreme in their own right. Veme is a company that realized we still struggle to meaningfully engage communities on larger social platforms that are increasingly becoming ‘pay-to-play’. Their platform is a comprehensive communal video network that empowers creators and audiences alike. Equipped with 'Mira,' their own advanced AI model, VEME transforms how meme content is created and shared online. The AI accesses global RSS feeds, converting trending news into engaging, shareable video memes, enabling creators to respond to cultural pulses in real-time. The Future of Content Creation Will Result In Individual Empowerment Ultimately, people want to have power over their data and how they express themselves. Web3 projects offer a means for this to happen without any centralized intermediaries. The most successful projects will allow their users to create content and get out of the way. Right now, many companies and institutions will reject these Web3 ecosystems much like they rejected J.K Rowling - because there is no ‘market fit’. Yet this is a huge mistake. Content creation and distribution are being completely revised on a planetary scale, with many new concepts such as the tokenized lore of Alien Worlds. The public is crying out for authentic self-expression. They will find a way to express themselves creatively using the most efficient means possible - even if they have to fall a few times along the way. Originally, Bitcoin came to the fore as a potential tool for disrupting the financial system. Despite all criticisms and attacks, it has done exactly that, as evidenced by the launch of Bitcoin Spot ETFs, with a subsequent rise to all-time highs above $70,000. Originally, Bitcoin came to the fore as a potential tool for disrupting the financial system. Despite all criticisms and attacks, it has done exactly that, as evidenced by the launch of Bitcoin Spot ETFs , with a subsequent rise to all-time highs above $70,000. Bitcoin Spot ETFs Bitcoin Spot ETFs Yet other industries are set for disruption. Content creation has yet to transition to Web3. Think about Amazon Kindle or the mainstream media, which are still centrally owned but command huge budgets and influence. Hollywood and traditional entertainment are losing subscribers and fans, and brands like Marvel and DC are still running on old stories that were created decades ago. Ultimately, people want to release their own stories and be able to make money from their creativity without paying centralized actors. The Content Creation Industry Traditionally, it was incredibly difficult to get a book published. Even J.K Rowling was rejected by twelve different editors before finally getting published, as one of the most popular franchises of all time. She’s now worth over $1 Billion. rejected by twelve different editors rejected by twelve twelve different editors This difficulty changed a lot with the rise of self-publishing tools, most notably Amazon Kindle and its impressive range of tools for both writing and marketing. Online sites Hackernoon offers a Web 2.5 approach that allows people to publish their views, with neat tools and light moderation. But for a pure experience, the entire network has to be user-powered with fully equitable rewards, and little to no censorship. Users should have the features to create and release content quickly, without third parties. And with multiple revenue options. Innovative Web3 ecosystems like Lightning Works (LW) do precisely this. Artists can create and release their own comics with the help of AI. LW has already released some of its own comics, aiming to start its own franchise with its own heroes, with the help of former Marvel, DC, and Disney artists and executives. It is redefining content creation as we know it, with a user-empowerment focus. This comes at a time when the power of Hollywood is waning and streaming has been shown to be a money-losing way to deliver content.  The world is ready for a new business model, and Web3 can solve this problem. money-losing money-losing Social Media vs Publishing vs Content Creation It has become a little difficult to delineate between content creation, publishing, and social media. There are new media formats coming to prominence and as users become more empowered, they take on the role of creators and publishers. The publishing industry traditionally referred to the release of books from prestigious firms, as well as the publication from mainstream media outlets (the MSM). But both of these have lost tremendous power, as faith in the MSM wanes and readers now gravitate to online formats. Social media is another form of content creation with more features made available for a variety of self-expression. However, there are many concerns about de-platforming as well as online censorship. Bluesky is a Web3 social media platform that deviated from Twitter. It’s technically an open messaging protocol - users can subscribe to the tags and groups that meet their preferences. In this way, they are effectively becoming their own moderators. Most importantly, creators are independent from platforms, being able to take content and contacts with them. The same theme is reflected in the gaming industry. Hexacore offers self publishing for games developers, with true digital ownership. It provides a hybrid monetization model with both free to play and play to own multiplayer games, and users can create their own in-game characters using AI. Meme Generation: Advanced Communication Evolved Through Web3 Memes, often misunderstood as mere internet jokes, are powerful forms of content creation that have reshaped communication. These cultural symbols harness the ability to convey complex messages and emotions swiftly and effectively. They have gotten a bad reputation due to their degenerative nature. But their power and impact cannot be denied, with huge trading volumes and massive user bases. huge trading volumes huge trading volumes Wall Street Memes, the Gamestop Saga, Dogecoin and more have risen from ‘mere’ meme status to cultural icons of their respective industries, ‘champions’ of the retail class of consumers, relatable to the extreme in their own right. Veme is a company that realized we still struggle to meaningfully engage communities on larger social platforms that are increasingly becoming ‘pay-to-play’. Their platform is a comprehensive communal video network that empowers creators and audiences alike. Equipped with 'Mira,' their own advanced AI model, VEME transforms how meme content is created and shared online. The AI accesses global RSS feeds, converting trending news into engaging, shareable video memes, enabling creators to respond to cultural pulses in real-time. The Future of Content Creation Will Result In Individual Empowerment Ultimately, people want to have power over their data and how they express themselves. Web3 projects offer a means for this to happen without any centralized intermediaries. The most successful projects will allow their users to create content and get out of the way. Right now, many companies and institutions will reject these Web3 ecosystems much like they rejected J.K Rowling - because there is no ‘market fit’. Yet this is a huge mistake. Content creation and distribution are being completely revised on a planetary scale, with many new concepts such as the tokenized lore of Alien Worlds. The public is crying out for authentic self-expression. They will find a way to express themselves creatively using the most efficient means possible - even if they have to fall a few times along the way.

Embracing Change: The Evolution of Content Creation in the Web3 Era

This paper is available on arxiv under CC 4.0 license. Authors: (1) Terence Blésin, Institute of Physics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) & Center of Quantum Science and Engineering (EPFL); (2) Wil Kao, Institute of Physics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) & Center of Quantum Science and Engineering (EPFL); (3) Anat Siddharth, Institute of Physics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) & Center of Quantum Science and Engineering (EPFL); (4) Alaina Attanasio, OxideMEMS lab, Purdue University; (5) Hao Tian, OxideMEMS lab, Purdue University; (6) Sunil A. Bhave, OxideMEMS lab, Purdue University; (7) Tobias J. Kippenberg, Institute of Physics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL) & Center of Quantum Science and Engineering (EPFL). Table of Links Introduction Results A. Physics and design B. Device characterization C. Bidirectional microwave-optical transduction D. Pulsed transduction Discussion Acknowledgments Appendix A: Theory Appendix B: Fabrication process flow Appendix C: Optical characterization Appendix D: Characterization of acoustic resonances Appendix E: Characterization of bidirectional transduction Appendix F: Optimization of optical extraction efficiency Coherent interconversion between microwave and optical frequencies can serve as both classical and quantum interfaces for computing, communication, and sensing. Here, we present a compact microwave-optical transducer based on monolithic integration of piezoelectric actuators atop silicon nitride photonic circuits. Such an actuator directly couples microwave signals to a high-overtone bulk acoustic resonator defined by the suspended silica cladding of the optical waveguide core, which leads to enhanced electromechanical and optomechanical couplings. At room temperature, this triply resonant piezo-optomechanical transducer achieves an off-chip photon number conversion efficiency of 1.6 × 10−5 over a bandwidth of 25 MHz at an input pump power of 21 dBm. The approach is scalable in manufacturing and, unlike existing electro-optic transducers, does not rely on superconducting resonators. As the transduction process is bidirectional, we further demonstrate synthesis of microwave pulses from a purely optical input. Combined with the capability of leveraging multiple acoustic modes for transduction, the present platform offers prospects for building frequency-multiplexed qubit interconnects and for microwave photonics at large. I. INTRODUCTION Modern data centers have seen rapidly increasing traffic that motivates an overhaul of existing network infrastructures. As optical fibers support nearly lossless transport and high bandwidths, twisted-pair copper deployment has shrunk in favor of optical interconnects. Energy-efficient optical transceivers [1] and optical network architectures [2] are being explored in parallel to accommodate emerging data- and resource-intensive applications. In an analogous fashion, processing quantum information in superconducting circuits and networking via photonic interconnects has been envisioned as an effective strategy to address the scalability challenges in advancing quantum technologies [3–5]. The scheme, featuring the full universal set of microwave quantum gates [6] with vanishing thermal occupancy and loss of the optical channels, calls for the development of microwaveoptical transducers to bridge the two energy scales that differ by more than four orders of magnitude. Aside from facilitating the networking of remote quantum processors, these transducers may enable fully optical control and readout of microwave qubits [7, 8]. The subsequent replacement of coaxial lines bridging room temperature and cryogenic environments by optical fibers is expected to significantly ease the space and heat load constraints in dilution refrigerators, opening up a path toward upscaling processor units housed in a single fridge. Efficient frequency conversion requires a nonlinear interaction stronger than the coupling to loss channels. The highest conversion efficiency to date has been achieved using an electro-optomechanical approach [9]. There, a silicon nitride membrane interacts with an optical mode of a free-space Fabry-Pérot cavity via radiation pressure and simultaneously serves as the top plate of a capacitor, parametrically coupling the mechanics to the microwave resonator. By virtue of the high resonator quality factors and pump power handling capability, 47% of input photons can be interconverted between optical and microwave domains [10], approaching the 50% efficiency required for attaining finite quantum capacity [11]. This highly efficient transducer has enabled optical dispersive qubit readout with negligible excess backaction [12]. The low-frequency (MHz) mechanical intermediary nevertheless limits the transduction bandwidth and leads to appreciable added noise even at dilution refrigerator temperature. To address these drawbacks, piezo-optomechanical transducers based on optomechanical crystals (OMC) have been developed [13–22], where a tightly confined high-frequency (GHz) mechanical mode and a co-localized optical mode can interact at a vacuum optomechanical coupling rate g0 ∼ 2π × 500 kHz. The trade-off lies instead in the sophistication required for microwave-phonon wave matching that significantly increases design complexity, as well as thermo-optic instability that constrains the intra-cavity photon number. An on-chip efficiency of 5% has recently been reported on such a platform [20]. However, low thermal conductance of these suspended quasi-one-dimensional structures hinders correlated microwave-optical photon pair generation at a practical rate. Cavity electro-optic modulators constitute a conceptually simpler approach where Pockels effect directly mediates microwave-optical interaction [23–25]. On-chip realizations employing planar superconducting microwave resonators, benefited from the deep sub-wavelength mode volume of the vacuum electric field, to reach single photon electro-optic coupling rates g0 ∼ 2π × 1 kHz [26– 29]. However, the material science of χ (2) crystals poses additional challenges. Photorefractive effects—observed, for instance, in LiNbO3 thin films [30]—hamper optical power handling, while piezoelectric loss and scattered optical photons degrade the quality factor of superconducting resonators [31, 32]. The difficulty of producing smooth sidewall surfaces in the workhorse Pockels material, LiNbO3 , through dry etching results in propagation losses an order of magnitude above the absorption limit [33]. As a result, the maximum on-chip efficiency achieved with integrated electro-optic transducers exceeds just 2% [26]. In the spirit of Ref. [9], a bulk transducer comprising a mm-size mechanically polished LiNbO3 whispering gallery mode (WGM) resonator coupled to a 3D superconducting microwave cavity has proved competitive, trading g0 for improved power handling and quality factors [34, 35]. Taking one step further with pulsed optical pumping, the system has demonstrated not only a hallmark 14.4% total efficiency but also electro-optic dynamical backaction [36, 37] and microwave-optical quadrature entanglement [38]. With the aforementioned design trade-offs in mind, we present a new piezo-optomechanical transducer based solely on wafer-scale, CMOS-compatible fabrication processes. We utilize a low-loss silicon nitride (Si3N4 ) photonic molecule, as well as multiple GHz high-overtone bulk acoustic resonances (HBAR) parametrically coupled to the optical modes. Endowed with power handling capabilities superior to existing integrated transducers, the device fits compactly within a 100 µm-by-50 µm footprint, in contrast to state-of-the-art bulk designs [10, 36]. In addition, the transduction HBAR modes are more readily coupled to the microwave signal, unlike OMC transducers. We demonstrate bidirectional microwave-optical transduction with a bandwidth of 25 MHz and total efficiency up to 1.6 × 10−5 by pumping with 21 dBm of off-chip optical power in continuous-wave (CW) operation. The device is also characterized with a pulsed optical pump, which constitutes the first step toward optical control and readout of qubits, as well as heralded microwave-optical photon pair generation. The simple design, ease of fabrication, robust operation, and compact form factor anticipate wide applicability in quantum technologies and microwave photonics at large.

Bidirectional Microwave-optical Transduction Based on Integration: Introduction

Quality-Diversity through AI Feedback: Appendix

Quantum Computers are the most expensive technology on Earth. I suffice, that their success is a direct measure of how rich a technological civilization is. With the riches measured in usable, carbon-neutralized energy. (If we don’t count the carbon now we shall still have to count it later). Moore’s law will not work for quantum computers This idea came to me after watching a clip from with the quantum physicist, applied mathematician and entrepreneur - Guillaume Verdon. Lex Fridman’s podcast Classical computers were first invented in ancient times before Christ, to be honest. But for practical purposes they truly emerged on the global scene with the invention of the transistor in 1947 at Bell Labs. With the invention of the transistor emerged Moore’s law. “ ” – Wikipedia. This law was posited by Gordon Moore in 1965 and has been accurate since 1975 to date. Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years It is a law indeed. But for classical computers. Why? Just like artificial intelligence, a classical computer with a human user is a system trying to encode key details of entropic processes in the universe with as small an entropic model as possible. To compute is to represent states in the universe (be they naturally occurring or occurring in abstract mathematical worlds or wherever) and run one of their process changes in a simulation. The less energy we can use to do this, the better. Smaller transistors use less energy and thankfully, Moore’s law has seen these basic units of computation, transistors, shrink tremendously from the light-bulb-sized setup below. To this highly magnified image of IBM’s 2-nanometer chip technology. It looks like an X-ray of some strange animal’s dental formula. Each transistor in the above image is roughly the size of 5 atoms and the 50 billion transistors in the chip can fit on a fingernail. All this miniaturization has been possible because we did not need a lot of energy or material to represent a bit of information, at the fundamental level. We did not know it 49 years ago when Gordon Moore postulated his law. We do now. However, we need a lot of energy and materials to represent a logical qubit of information. And that is precisely why quantum computers will not scale according to Moore’s law. As the number of qubits we need increases, the energy needed hence the cost of running these quantum computations will likely increase to match the growth of real, carbon-neutralized GDP for the entire planet. But qubits are cold. What do you mean they need a lot of energy? Theoretically, a quantum computation consumes less energy than a classical computation. Because the energy changes are reversible, we could, theoretically, run quantum computations on zero energy! Because theoretically still, any energy we input is never output. For example, the fundamental logical gate in classical computations, called a NAND gate, looks as below. You can see that 2 bits of information, A and B, go in, but only one bit of information goes out. Since that information is energy, this shows that classical computers are wasteful of energy. Landauer showed The quantum version of the NAND gate is called the Tofolli gate and is seen below. 3 inputs of energy to give 3 outputs of energy. No energy wasted. But wait, you need 3 qubit inputs while in the classical case, you only needed 2 bits. Already, we can see we need more than is usual. Simulating nature is materially and energetically very expensive Needing more energy pulses for our inputs is not even a scratch on the surface of our energy budget when using quantum computers. Thing is, we are simulating nature using artificial nature, millions of times bigger than what we are simulating. Take superconducting qubits. While natural qubits like “spinning” electrons are extremely tiny things small enough to survive their quantum states from being hit by most cosmic rays, superconducting qubits behave like artificial spinning electrons we can easily control. The downside is that millions of cosmic rays see them very clearly. And they hit them. That is just one form of external noise. It costs us and it is going to keep costing us. We need and shall keep needing a lot of energy to keep energetic noise like cosmic rays out of our quantum systems. As Mr. Guillaume explains, the trick up our sleeve is to build error-correcting codes of codes of codes of codes of the noisy system, which eventually gives us a noise-less system (in the average case). But this makes the system bigger hence a bigger budget for the cool down. Heat is the second form of external noise. Should have been the first one we talk about. Taking the analogy of the spinning electron again, sitted comfortably in its orbit, infrared signals carrying heat rarely bump the electron enough to interrupt its spin. The electron is electrostatically bound to the nucleus and if that electron is sharing the orbit with another electron, the two are essentially entangled and again, harder to bother with a spin-out of their stable configurations. Thirdly, why we suffer so much in energetic costs is because it takes a very huge amount of energy to keep track of quantum states with our measurements. Nature doesn’t do measurements, we do. We are thus adding information (a measurement) to our simulation of nature. Hence more energy (remember Landauer). Measurement also introduces unnecessary energy into a quantum system which affects the position and momentum of our particles a la Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. It also doesn’t help that collapsing the wave function of a superposed quantum state into 1 of many states, albeit randomly, gives us exactly zero information about the hidden variables of that state. This is true randomness, not what classical computers mimic which is pseudo randomness. Our classical randomization algorithms are all pseudorandom. Einstein . complained about this Therefore we usually have to make multiple repeated measurements to figure out the probability distribution of our quantum states, be it to learn how to nudge them or mitigate errors. These repeated initializations plus measurements are called “shots” and we normally need them in the thousands. They all consume a lot of energy. Hence money. We need a bigger budget Here’s a law for you, “If we check every 2 years for the next 2 decades, qubits will keep being more expensive to run for computation than transistors” The funding is going exponential but the best we can show for it so far is . However, we cannot afford to slow down, we are close to a great use-case. 433 qubits For now, progress in quantum computers shall keep growing to match increasing funding to quantum computation but with zero profits, and it will not break even in the same way classical computing has broken even. You know, with some sort of Moore’s law for qubits. Certainly, there are learning curves that take us from poor qubits to better qubits and this curve reduces energy costs hence the budgetary constraints. But at the lowest limit, running perfect simulations of natural models is going to cost us big time and will never be cheaper than classical computation en masse. Classical computers might be approximations of nature, but they show us that we can go very far with approximating nature. However, since we need to sometimes take a critical look at reality if only to break out of approximations that are hitting their limit, then we need to be able to pay for it. Big quantum computational systems like LIGO cost $1.1 billion but it has to be paid if you want to look at the clear night sky and see gravitational waves. No classical computational systems, no matter how cleverly built, will be able to encode everything that is going on in LIGO. The E/acc movement is right, humanity needs to reach for more rungs up the ladder of the Kardashev scale. We need to be able to consume hundreds of times more usable, carbon-free energy than we use today. This energy is what truly pays for everything including quantum computations and while the technology may not be good enough for making profitable desktop-quantum-PCs, quantum computers will, once every while, give us a view of reality we did not expect. A view that re-ignites our interest in the world. Quantum Computers help nudge humanity and its classical computational approximators ever closer to truer greatness than if we had never discovered the power that is simulating nature with a quantum computational model. Even though it might be the most expensive technology on earth. *** P.S. >> Because running quantum computations is so expensive our fears of futuristic quantum computers hacking our email are unfounded. Social hacking will remain a cheaper way to hack your email, quantum computers, not so much. And if your password is PASSWORD please do not blame quantum computers.

The Most Expensive Technology on Earth 

পৃথিবীর সবচেয়ে ব্যয়বহুল প্রযুক্তি

Die teuerste Technologie der Welt

La tecnología más cara del planeta

La technologie la plus chère au monde

पृथ्वी पर सबसे महंगी तकनीक

地球上で最も高価なテクノロジー

지구상에서 가장 비싼 기술

A tecnologia mais cara do planeta

Самая дорогая технология на Земле

Dünyanın En Pahalı Teknolojisi

Công nghệ đắt nhất trên trái đất

地球上最昂贵的技术

Quantum Computing is Dead - Long Live Quantum Processing!

কোয়ান্টাম কম্পিউটিং মৃত - দীর্ঘজীবী কোয়ান্টাম প্রসেসিং!

Quantencomputing ist tot – Es lebe die Quantenverarbeitung!

La computación cuántica ha muerto: ¡larga vida al procesamiento cuántico!

L’informatique quantique est morte – Vive le traitement quantique !

क्वांटम कंप्यूटिंग ख़त्म हो चुकी है - क्वांटम प्रोसेसिंग लंबे समय तक जीवित रहेगी!

量子コンピューティングは死んだ - 量子処理万歳!

양자 컴퓨팅은 끝났습니다 - 양자 처리가 오래 지속됩니다!

A computação quântica está morta - viva o processamento quântico!

Квантовые вычисления мертвы – да здравствуют квантовые вычисления!

Kuantum Bilişim Öldü - Yaşasın Kuantum İşleme!

Máy tính lượng tử đã chết - Xử lý lượng tử tồn tại lâu dài!

量子计算已死——量子处理万岁！

THOUGHTS ON SCIENCE

UNLOOKED-FOR ARRIVALS.

Scientific American Supplement, No. 799, April 25, 1891 by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . MARBLE AND MOSAIC. here MARBLE AND MOSAIC. By T.R. SPENCE. I do not propose to enter into any historical details as to the first and subsequent application of mosaics. In a general sense we understand mosaic as a combination of various more or less imperishable materials—fixed together by cement or other adhesive substances—and laid over walls, floors, etc., with a view to permanent decorative effect. The substance of the tesseræ is of many kinds, namely, glass, cheap and precious marbles, hard stone, and burnt clay, these mentioned being mainly in use for architectural purposes. For decorative schemes we collect as many gradations of color as are obtainable in such durable materials in their natural or manufactured state, and thus form a color palette which we regard in the same sense as a painter would his pigments. Of course, the first proceeding is to prepare a design on a small scale, which shall embrace your notions of color only. Then follows a full-sized cartoon, which I need hardly add shall embrace your best efforts in drawing. A tracing is made of the latter and transferred to sheets of cardboard. This cardboard is cut to the size of certain sections of your design, and, for convenience, should not be more than, say, 20 in. square. Of course, it will not always be square, but will bear the same relation to your complete cartoon as a map of the counties would to that of all England. Now, working from the small design (of color), the tesseræ are cut to the forms required, laid face downward, and glued on to the cardboard sections containing your enlarged cartoon. When the design is all worked out on these sections they are ready for fixing on walls or floor by laying them home on a float of cement. When the cement sets, the cardboard sticking to the face is washed off, and the joints of tesseræ flushed over with cement and cleaned off, leaving all joints filled up level. There are other processes used for the same end. The technical processes need not occupy our attention at present. There is one process that may appeal to you, and that is executing the work by floating on a limited expanse of cement, and sticking on the tesseræ at once. It has the advantage of enabling the artist or architect to see the effect of his efforts under the fixed conditions of light and height. in situ I shall confine myself to vitreous or glass mosaic, which for durability, extended scales of primary colors and their numerous semi-transparent gradations is unequaled by any substance yet used for wall or floor decoration. I am surprised, having all these fine qualities, it is not more used by architects. If you require proofs of its triumphs, go to St. Mark's, of Venice, and stand under its mellow golden roof. There you will find its domes and vaulted aisles, nave and transepts entirely overlaid with gold mosaic, into which ground is worked—in the deepest and richest colors and their gradations that contemporary manufacturers could produce—subjects selected from the creation down to the life of Christ, in addition containing a complete alphabet of early Christian symbolism. The roof surfaces being one succession of over-arching curves become receptive of innumerable waves of light and broad unities of soft shadows, giving the whole an incomparable quality of tone and low juicy color. Never use your gold but on curved or undulating surfaces. Flat planes of gold only give the effect of a monotonous metallic yellow, and can never be beautiful, owing to the absence of the variations that come with waves of shadow. By letting out the reins of imagination we might feel that in this a tenth century Giorgione has given off the mental impressions of all the golden autumn of his life. His material gave him an advantage over his great followers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, insomuch that glass has a living and glowing quality of light not existing in the somewhat clouded purity of oil or fresco. In St. Mark's we have an example of the superb treatment in deepest and most Titianesque scales applied to curved forms, but to find a similarly complete example of the use of lighter tones and on flat surfaces, we must turn to Ravenna. I can give you no adequate description of the wall mosaics of Ravenna. In the sense of delicate color they remind me of some of the subtile harmonies of many of the finest works of the modern French school—of the Impressionists and others who combine that quality with a true instinct for design. In standing before them you feel that the Dagnan Bouverets, the Mersons, the Cazins, the Puvis de Chavannes, etc., of the fifth century have had a hand in the conception and realization of the beautiful compositions to be found on the nave walls of the two churches of St. Appollinare Nuovo and St. Appollinare in Classe. Here all the scales are of delicate degrees of light tones, supreme in their beauty, completeness, and, most important to us, their true decorative instinct. In the Baptistery we find what I may term a third essay in color, by weaving in rich, dark, and glowing colors on figures and bold sinuous forms of ornament in such a skillful and judicious manner that the whole dome seems to be alive with harmonies, although they are mostly primaries. As you know, rules for the disposition of color are futile, yet some details that struck me as eminently satisfactory may interest you. In all cases the tesseræ are of small dimensions, about a quarter of an inch square. The stucco joints are large and open, surfaces far from level, but undulating considerably. The tesseræ stick up in parts, brilliant edges showing. Absence of flatness gives play to the light. The gray of the stucco joints brings the whole composition together, serving as cool grays in a picture to give tender unity. Gold, apart from backgrounds and large surfaces, is used very cleverly in small pieces in borders of garments, and more especially in thin outlines to make out the drawing and certain flowing forms of ornament. Brilliant pieces of glass actually moulded at the kiln into forms of jewels add brilliancy to crowns, borders, etc. These stick boldly out from the surface. I noticed in the Baptistery below the springing of the dome a frieze about 2 ft. 6 in. deep, having the ground entirely in black, through which was woven in thin gold lines a delicate foliated design. This, in conjunction with the upper surfaces in dark, rich color, had a most delightful effect. We, as students, can learn most from the Ravenna examples, for great are the needs of light and silvery color in this country, where gray and gloomy days far outnumber those in which the sun gives liberally of his light. I may say, in passing, as our subject is really a matter of decoration, that our nineteenth century efforts in this direction are all of a somewhat gloomy tendency. We fill our rooms with imitations of somber Spanish leather, stain and paint our woodwork in leathery and muddy tones, to arrive at what is now a sort of decorator's god. Quaintness is the name of that god. Many are the sins for which he has to answer. Had we not better worship a deity called beauty, whose place is a little higher up Parnassus? Why should we not in our endeavors attempt in some measure to transfix the brilliant harmonies that follow the sun in his liberal and gracious course? This muddy quaintness is certainly pleasant for brief periods, when lamps are low and fire light gilds and deepens its parts. Turn the sunlight on these so-called triumphs of the modern decorator's art, and then you feel the lack of many a phase of color that might have been borrowed from the thousand and one examples that in nature he vivifies and makes brilliant. Referring again to the Ravenna mosaics, I can only add that at the present day an extended palette of colored glass is available. The technical difficulties are not great, and there is no question as to the fine qualities of design and color that are to be obtained in this material. The great point in this, as in all other schemes of decoration, is the art, the mental quality of conception, and the sense of color and fitness. If we hold the precious heritage of an artist's mind—that divine and rare something which gives form, color, and completeness to a story, a dream or a vision—then very little difficulty follows in making vitreous mosaic a valued servant in the realization of a fine creation. It is the function of architects to design suitable spaces for color decoration, so bound in by dignified mouldings and other details of his constructive art, in such a manner that the addition of decorative color shall in no way mar the scheme of his complete work, but shall (under these well ordered distributions) have set on them the seal and crown of color which is inseparable from a perfect piece of architecture. In such spaces he may dream his dreams, tell his stories, and stamp on them for centuries his subtilest and divinest thoughts. May I not urge that to such spaces must be given the best that is in you? for once placed so shall they remain unchanged through generations, time being powerless to add any mellow garment of tone or softening quality whatever. I mistook the title of the subject in thinking that it was mosaic only, and at the last moment found it was marble and mosaic. However, the same dominant principles shall underlie the treatment of marble. It is a question of the finer instincts for form and color. In recent years the demand for choice decorative materials has been the means of opening out many marble quarries all over the world. Transit being easy, a large scale of varieties is available. One fine addition is the Mexican onyx. My feeling is that the most beautiful marbles are those where the soft and sinuous veins melt and die into the general body, comparatively sharp markings dying right away at the edges into innumerable gradations. Marbles having strong and hardly marked veins present great difficulties in distribution. If they are near, they offend you with their coarseness; and, placed at a distance, the hard vein lines have very little decorative value. I should say use these in narrow slips, with very little moulded profile or as parts of intazzio. Mouldings should be specially designed for different marbles. I should say mainly on the principle of sudden contrasts; that is, large members with very little curve bound with members very small in detail, thus obtaining sharp lines, having little surface to be influenced or distorted by the veined markings, and serving to sharpen up and give form to the broader members (which show the color qualities of the marble), much as you sharpen up an ink drawing by underlining. These small members serve the architect's purpose for the expression of vertical and horizontal lines, and where decisive and cutting shadows are required in the composition of his work. If delicate carving forms part of your design, I should say statuary is the best, as you have no veins to distort your detail. I need hardly add that economy should be studied in using precious marbles, without injuring the durability of the work. Contours may be built up in thin sections. Intazzio is a beautiful form of treating marble on an inexpensive ground. Gem-like effects may be obtained by inlaying with smaller pieces, following such ornamental forms as your inventive brains shall dictate. Perhaps the pockets of your clients will be the chief dictator. Heraldic emblazonings, inlaid in marble, are highly effective. The conditions of the heraldry necessitate the use of many varieties, but in such small quantities that on a large simple field they are rarely out of harmony. In addition they map out a large and interesting variety that will save the worry of creation of designs coming entirely from your own brain, and you know the worry of an architect's life makes him hail with pleasure at times a rest from the strain of creation. This heraldic work may be seen to perfection in the chapel of the tombs of the Medici at Florence. At the Pitti Palace are some tables which you may know where marble intazzio can no further go. Alabaster does not appeal to me, it is somewhat sugary in results. If you are fortunate enough to have a sculptor who is a sort of nineteenth century Donatello, let him work his will on statuary or such restful marble. The celebrated monument in the church of S. Giovanni Paulo, at Venice, which Ruskin says is the finest monument in the world, if my recollection serves me correctly, is in white marble, and its beauty comes entirely from the sculptor's art. Such monuments give you much better than any words of mine ample suggestions for marble treatment. I may quote such names as Nicolo Pisano and Verocchio. Photos of some of their work I have brought. Note Pisano's beautiful white altar at Bologna, and Mina de Fiesole's work in Florence. They all show the sculptor as supreme. Why should not we encourage individual young sculptors more? Give them portions of your work in which they can put all the fervor and enthusiasm of young manhood. Their powers may not be ripe, but they possess a verve and intensity that may have forever fled when in later years the imagination is less enthusiastic and the pulses slower. I am sure there are many young sculptors now wanting commissions who have been trained at the academy, and better still, in the best French schools. I maintain that the contemporary French school of sculpture is in its line equal to any school of sculpture that has ever existed, not excepting that of Phidias or that of the Italian Renaissance of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. I believe history will confirm this. Why not give these men an opportunity, and help on the movement to found a truly English school of sculpture, rather than give all such work to trading firms of carvers, who will do you any number of superficial feet, properly priced and scheduled, and in the bills of quantities, of any style you please, from prehistoric to Victorian Gothic? Of course, this is our British way of founding a great school. There is one method of treatment that appeals to me very strongly, and that is the application of colored metals to marble, more especially bronze and copper. I may quote as a successful example near the Wellington Memorial at St. Paul's. Another suggestion—although it is not used in combination with marble, but it nevertheless suggests what might be done in the way of bronze panels—that is, the Fawcett Memorial, by Gilbert, in the west chapel at Westminster Abbey. A paper recently read before the Architectural Association, London.— . From the Architect About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2004). Scientific American Supplement, No. 799, April 25, 1891. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/11649/pg11649-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

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