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Celebrating 10 Years of War Robots and Reflecting From A Technical Perspective

যুদ্ধের রোবটদের 10 বছর উদযাপন করা এবং একটি প্রযুক্তিগত দৃষ্টিকোণ থেকে প্রতিফলিত করা

10 Jahre Kriegsroboter und ein Blick aus technischer Perspektive

Celebrando 10 años de robots de guerra y reflexionando desde una perspectiva técnica

Célébration de 10 ans de robots de guerre et réflexion d'un point de vue technique

युद्ध रोबोट के 10 साल का जश्न और तकनीकी परिप्रेक्ष्य से चिंतन

戦争ロボット10周年を祝い、技術的な観点から振り返る

전쟁 로봇 10주년을 기념하고 기술적 관점에서 성찰

Comemorando 10 anos de robôs de guerra e refletindo de uma perspectiva técnica

Празднование 10-летия боевых роботов и размышления с технической точки зрения

Savaş Robotlarının 10. Yılını Kutlamak ve Teknik Açıdan Düşünmek

Kỷ niệm 10 năm robot chiến tranh và suy ngẫm từ góc độ kỹ thuật

庆祝战争机器人十周年并从技术角度进行反思

Hi folks, Brands publish on HackerNoon via our Brand-as-author programs to provide our readers transparency and context, while also getting exclusive benefits such as logo, company bio, brand name as a handle, about page, and that precious Call-to-Action (or, as SEO spammers like to call it, “backlink”) button. Today, we’re going to be discussing something the editorial team gets asked all the time by content marketers of various brands: How to get our story on the front page of HackerNoon as a top story!? But, first things first, the best way for brands to write on HackerNoon is to not immediately toot their own horn, so to speak. You need to first give readers some valueby writing about your brand’s field of expertise. Oh no! “How will we promote our brand, then?” You might ask…Well, hold your horses, we’re getting to that bit. The point is to first give readers value by writing about your expertise using thought leadership and then sprinkle in a bit of promotion. As a brand, we understand that you want, and obviously, need to promote your products or services, but **that promotion should not be the main focus of the articles you are writing on HackerNoon but rather the cherry on top that readers should get after gaining some insight and value from your article. So, it is extremely important that you consider ways to offer unique value while still promoting your brand. “What about that top story spot?” I hear you screaming… Well, our editors consider a variety of factors before deeming a story worthy of that prestigious place atop the HackerNoon front page and every editor has their own editorial discretion as well but here are a few pointers to guide you in the right direction. Generally, an article may be categorized as a top story as a brandif it has some of the following elements: The article is well written (duh), free of grammatical and factual errors, and has accurate sourcing/citation for information, like this one.


If it is a unique story that has not been brought to the public eye elsewhere, like this one


A distinctive or new spin on news/events trending in the tech world that differentiates it from other stories in the ether - here’s an example.


Includes original reporting or investigational work relating to a matter - here’s an example.


Relevance to a majority of HackerNoon's audience - like this example.


A catchy/edgy headline to garner clicks and views on social media, see this.


A story that might help in spreading awareness on important issues among the masses and doing so in a respectable, well-informed manner, here’s an example.


Has a conversational, fun, engaging tone that entices the reader to continue till the end, like this.


Breaks down a complex process/concept into easily understandable language for the layman, for reference, check this story out.


Includes personal experience or personal touch or a valuable thought process - here’s a nice examplefor your reference.


Is properly researched, has good examples and includes actionable insights. Here’s a great example, check it out.


Most importantly, provides value to the reader - gets them to think, laugh, cry, be concerned, or actually feel something after reading the story. See this heartwarming startup of the year interview as an example. You can head over here to see some writing prompts that might help you make your next top story! Or maybe you can give us an interview about your company, tell us about your startup's funding or answer these questions for startup founders. Those of you consistently publishing on HackerNoon as brands are probably now familiar with our Brand-as-Author (BAA) Program, but for those who are not, this is the ideal time to check out the program to see what it can do for your brand akin to what it has done for countless others. In an effort to up our game and provide our brand partners with even more value, brands that publish on HackerNoon now receive $100 worth of social media promotion for every $500 they spend! Head here to learn more. ….and that’s all folks! Hope you found this post helpful and gained some insight from it. Looking forward to putting some more brand stories on the top! Disclaimer
Please do keep in mind that there are general guidelines and suggestions and not a guarantee that a story will be granted a top spot or accepted. Submitted stories also still have to adhere to other rules regarding plagiarism, link promotion and adequate formatting. For example: If a story hits all 12 of the above points but turns out to be plagiarized, it will not be accepted. Hi folks, Brands publish on HackerNoon via our Brand-as-author programs to provide our readers transparency and context, while also getting exclusive benefits such as logo, company bio, brand name as a handle, about page, and that precious Call-to-Action (or, as SEO spammers like to call it, “backlink”) button. Brand-as-author Today, we’re going to be discussing something the editorial team gets asked all the time by content marketers of various brands: How to get our story on the front page of HackerNoon as a top story!? How to get our story on the front page of HackerNoon as a top story!? But, first things first, the best way for brands to write on HackerNoon is to not immediately toot their own horn, so to speak. You need to first give readers some value by writing about your brand’s field of expertise. give readers some value Oh no! “How will we promote our brand, then?” You might ask…Well, hold your horses, we’re getting to that bit. The point is to first give readers value by writing about your expertise using thought leadership and then sprinkle in a bit of promotion. As a brand, we understand that you want, and obviously, need to promote your products or services, but **that promotion should not be the main focus of the articles you are writing on HackerNoon but rather the cherry on top that readers should get after gaining some insight and value from your article. So, it is extremely important that you consider ways to offer unique value while still promoting your brand. “What about that top story spot?” I hear you screaming… top story Well, our editors consider a variety of factors before deeming a story worthy of that prestigious place atop the HackerNoon front page and every editor has their own editorial discretion as well but here are a few pointers to guide you in the right direction. Generally, an article may be categorized as a top story as a brand if it has some of the following elements: a top story as a brand The article is well written (duh), free of grammatical and factual errors, and has accurate sourcing/citation for information, like this one. If it is a unique story that has not been brought to the public eye elsewhere, like this one A distinctive or new spin on news/events trending in the tech world that differentiates it from other stories in the ether - here’s an example. Includes original reporting or investigational work relating to a matter - here’s an example. Relevance to a majority of HackerNoon's audience - like this example. A catchy/edgy headline to garner clicks and views on social media, see this. A story that might help in spreading awareness on important issues among the masses and doing so in a respectable, well-informed manner, here’s an example. Has a conversational, fun, engaging tone that entices the reader to continue till the end, like this. Breaks down a complex process/concept into easily understandable language for the layman, for reference, check this story out. Includes personal experience or personal touch or a valuable thought process - here’s a nice examplefor your reference. Is properly researched, has good examples and includes actionable insights. Here’s a great example, check it out. Most importantly, provides value to the reader - gets them to think, laugh, cry, be concerned, or actually feel something after reading the story. See this heartwarming startup of the year interview as an example. The article is well written (duh), free of grammatical and factual errors, and has accurate sourcing/citation for information, like this one. The article is well written (duh), free of grammatical and factual errors, and has accurate sourcing/citation for information, like this one . this one If it is a unique story that has not been brought to the public eye elsewhere, like this one If it is a unique story that has not been brought to the public eye elsewhere, like this one this one A distinctive or new spin on news/events trending in the tech world that differentiates it from other stories in the ether - here’s an example. A distinctive or new spin on news/events trending in the tech world that differentiates it from other stories in the ether - here’s an example . example Includes original reporting or investigational work relating to a matter - here’s an example. Includes original reporting or investigational work relating to a matter - here’s an example . example Relevance to a majority of HackerNoon's audience - like this example. Relevance to a majority of HackerNoon's audience - like this example . like this example A catchy/edgy headline to garner clicks and views on social media, see this. A catchy/edgy headline to garner clicks and views on social media, see this . see this A story that might help in spreading awareness on important issues among the masses and doing so in a respectable, well-informed manner, here’s an example. A story that might help in spreading awareness on important issues among the masses and doing so in a respectable, well-informed manner, here’s an example . example Has a conversational, fun, engaging tone that entices the reader to continue till the end, like this. Has a conversational, fun, engaging tone that entices the reader to continue till the end, like this . like this Breaks down a complex process/concept into easily understandable language for the layman, for reference, check this story out. Breaks down a complex process/concept into easily understandable language for the layman, for reference, check this story out . check this story out Includes personal experience or personal touch or a valuable thought process - here’s a nice examplefor your reference. Includes personal experience or personal touch or a valuable thought process - here’s a nice example for your reference. nice example Is properly researched, has good examples and includes actionable insights. Here’s a great example, check it out. Is properly researched, has good examples and includes actionable insights. Here’s a great example , check it out. a great example Most importantly, provides value to the reader - gets them to think, laugh, cry, be concerned, or actually feel something after reading the story. See this heartwarming startup of the year interview as an example. Most importantly, provides value to the reader - gets them to think, laugh, cry, be concerned, or actually feel something after reading the story. See this heartwarming startup of the year interview as an example. heartwarming startup of the year interview You can head over here to see some writing prompts that might help you make your next top story! Or maybe you can give us an interview about your company, tell us about your startup's funding or answer these questions for startup founders . here give us an interview tell us about your startup's funding questions for startup founders Those of you consistently publishing on HackerNoon as brands are probably now familiar with our Brand-as-Author (BAA) Program, but for those who are not, this is the ideal time to check out the program to see what it can do for your brand akin to what it has done for countless others . program countless others In an effort to up our game and provide our brand partners with even more value, brands that publish on HackerNoon now receive $100 worth of social media promotion for every $500 they spend! Head here to learn more. brands that publish now receive $100 worth of social media promotion for every $500 they spend! Head here to learn more. here ….and that’s all folks! Hope you found this post helpful and gained some insight from it. Looking forward to putting some more brand stories on the top! Disclaimer Please do keep in mind that there are general guidelines and suggestions and not a guarantee that a story will be granted a top spot or accepted. Submitted stories also still have to adhere to other rules regarding plagiarism, link promotion and adequate formatting. For example: If a story hits all 12 of the above points but turns out to be plagiarized, it will not be accepted. Disclaimer Disclaimer Disclaimer Please do keep in mind that there are general guidelines and suggestions and not a guarantee that a story will be granted a top spot or accepted. Submitted stories also still have to adhere to other rules regarding plagiarism, link promotion and adequate formatting. For example: If a story hits all 12 of the above points but turns out to be plagiarized, it will not be accepted. Please do keep in mind that there are general guidelines and suggestions and not a guarantee that a story will be granted a top spot or accepted. Submitted stories also still have to adhere to other rules regarding plagiarism, link promotion and adequate formatting. For example: If a story hits all 12 of the above points but turns out to be plagiarized, it will not be accepted. Please do keep in mind that there are general guidelines and suggestions and not a guarantee that a story will be granted a top spot or accepted. Submitted stories also still have to adhere to other rules regarding plagiarism, link promotion and adequate formatting. For example: If a story hits all 12 of the above points but turns out to be plagiarized, it will not be accepted.

Factors that Can Give Brand Posts an Edge to be a Top Story — A HackerNoon Editor’s Perspective

The way to understand the way our mind works, the way society works, and that of the natural universe may be evolution. While pondering this I, as usual, came across a larger and more difficult question: What is purpose and where might it come from? Does purpose need a source? First, let me backtrack. We accept that evolution is the best description for the multitude of living species and their different attributes. Life itself seems to be a result of evolution, the change from non-living matter to cells that reproduce comes through the process of interaction – the blending of information, randomness (random mutation), and a best fit, or actually just fit to external surroundings. Actually, the concept of internal, inside the organism or your body, and the outside world may be far more blurred than we usually imagine. In what you call your body there are millions of bacteria many of which are necessary to your bodily functions. Although separate organisms they contribute to the whole of you, your organism. You are an amalgam. Your skin is porous letting in UV rays, chemicals (vitamin E crème for instance is designed to penetrate the skin) and sound and radiation waves pass through us as does electricity changing us in the process. This sideline just helps to illustrate that we like linear boxes although the universe is not boxed or linear. My idea sprouted wings while reading “Time Reborn” by physicist Lee Smolin. He posits that the rules of the universe, the physical laws of quantum and Newtonian physics, are a “best fit” group of rules like the DNA in an animal instructing it how to survive in its environment. They are not perfect but they are very close, and they seem to apply pretty much universally. There are infinite possibilities. But why is the speed of light a constant at 299,792,458 m/s?  Why these laws?  He proposes that these laws are the best fit for just this universe and they evolved with this universe in a coupling. These rules are still evolving. He sees black holes as the place where new laws are made and tested. Only those that fit the universe around them would survive. Recently I read an interview with acclaimed neurologist Gerald Edelman in NPQ and his description of the way our brain works and it is very similar to what I have previously written about on JeS in the article How to Create a Brain (Artificial Intelligence). Our brain finds the best fit or even any fit decisions or actions through a process of trial and error combined with randomness and imagination. Trial and error is essentially a very quick form of evolution. We test each new breed against current circumstances (often imagined) and those that don’t fit are “killed” off and those that do “survive” are tested in the real world and if successful stored for later use. But here I discovered the problem. We have a purpose. We are trying to achieve a goal. If we are trying to find the nearest Bunnings we can test different routes and modes of transport in our imagination first, and then test them in real life to fit the purposes of; Buying a hammer,
Speed of acquisition
Minimal cost. Our brain has purpose and so it creates new ideas and procedures – new information. It evolves making new connections between neurons. Societies and cultures do likewise; being an extension of the beings in them; they test ideas, adapt -making changes – then enforce rules when they have found the best fit. I have talked before about how rigid rules and hierarchies can actually stifle this evolutionary progression in societies. Cultures and societies can and do collapse – the death of a species – they can also spread memes like genes which hold the information for future use. But both animals and societies (groups of animals) have purpose.  In simple life forms the reproduction of the species is the purpose that drives everything. In simple cultures (groups) it is also the maintaining of the individuals to reproductive age to spread the species. But what is the purpose of the universe? What could the intrinsic purpose of a rock be?\ We, of course, have many purposes that are not directly related to the extension or maintenance of the entire species instead many relate solely to a good and happy life. Many people don’t breed but still have purpose. Humans just like many animals have dopamine receptors which give us pleasure from certain activities, and stress responses that cause us discomfort from bad experiences. Many of our evolutionary choice processes are driven by the desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. In a grander sense, we can invent purposes for ourselves. Be it making the world a better place or being the best footballer ever. Purpose seems to be a fluid thing, one that bends and maybe even forms from the environment and society in which we live. It may not need a linear root at all. Some people commit suicide and there is some speculation that whales may beach themselves as a form of suicide. That goes against the central purpose to progress the species. And, most importantly, many people never have children but still have purpose. Our need for a purpose to evolution is the way we try to interpret and understand the world. We want linear connections; we want a cause and effect. But there can be no ultimate cause, for nothing could cause it. Linear lines are endless. I am trying to get away from this way of thinking in this article about evolution being the way to comprehend the universe. However, there may be a way for our linear mind to understand such a concept. Perhaps the universe works in the same way as our brain. It does not need an intrinsic purpose from which all sub-purposes branch. Each micro-part, each atom, each string, and each energy field constantly adapts to the other fields and particles around it, and to the larger form, planets, stars, and gravity. An inter-loop of 4 (and possibly more) dimensional informational transfers; small to large, group and field to group, and field is all in constant flow. Constantly adapting to itself. It just is, and will, continue to be but in a constantly changing and interactive way. In the same way, we refer to the sun rising today as being a sunrise as we called yesterday’s, even though the temperature is different, the hue more magenta, and our mood less happy. The purpose (if required) is to form in the micro-interaction and randomness of evolution. Thus creating a larger organismic form, and then feeding back to itself.  We can box these things to absolutes that never existed. I would like to make one more comment about how physics may be able to help us grasp the non-linear. The theory of the Higgs Boson – which has been supported by experiments in the Large Hadron Collider –  that a Higgs Boson particle does imbalance the field of energy which causes energy to become matter. Imbalance; which we mean to be a purpose away from its desired state. This imbalance is pulling to a purpose, pulling to nothing, pulling to balance and inactivity, to chaos to infinity, which is the purpose of the universe. The matter comes from imbalance the in-between nothing and infinity, the imperfection of Plato’s forms as everything pulls toward perfect nothingness. So here we have the purpose of the universe and all comes from its inability to achieve it. As it is with us. This is just a prelude to something larger for there are too many vague areas for a thorough argument. Please think and write a comment if you want to help. This was first published a long time ago (2014) on my website JeSaurai.net which is over 20 years old now. The way to understand the way our mind works, the way society works, and that of the natural universe may be evolution. While pondering this I, as usual, came across a larger and more difficult question: What is purpose and where might it come from? Does purpose need a source? First, let me backtrack. We accept that evolution is the best description for the multitude of living species and their different attributes. Life itself seems to be a result of evolution, the change from non-living matter to cells that reproduce comes through the process of interaction – the blending of information, randomness (random mutation), and a best fit, or actually just fit to external surroundings. Actually, the concept of internal, inside the organism or your body, and the outside world may be far more blurred than we usually imagine. In what you call your body there are millions of bacteria many of which are necessary to your bodily functions. Although separate organisms they contribute to the whole of you, your organism. You are an amalgam. Your skin is porous letting in UV rays, chemicals (vitamin E crème for instance is designed to penetrate the skin) and sound and radiation waves pass through us as does electricity changing us in the process. This sideline just helps to illustrate that we like linear boxes although the universe is not boxed or linear. My idea sprouted wings while reading “Time Reborn” by physicist Lee Smolin. He posits that the rules of the universe, the physical laws of quantum and Newtonian physics, are a “best fit” group of rules like the DNA in an animal instructing it how to survive in its environment. They are not perfect but they are very close, and they seem to apply pretty much universally. There are infinite possibilities. But why is the speed of light a constant at 299,792,458 m/s?  Why these laws?  He proposes that these laws are the best fit for just this universe and they evolved with this universe in a coupling. These rules are still evolving. He sees black holes as the place where new laws are made and tested. Only those that fit the universe around them would survive. Recently I read an interview with acclaimed neurologist Gerald Edelman in NPQ and his description of the way our brain works and it is very similar to what I have previously written about on JeS in the article How to Create a Brain (Artificial Intelligence) . Our brain finds the best fit or even any fit decisions or actions through a process of trial and error combined with randomness and imagination. Trial and error is essentially a very quick form of evolution. We test each new breed against current circumstances (often imagined) and those that don’t fit are “killed” off and those that do “survive” are tested in the real world and if successful stored for later use. But here I discovered the problem. We have a purpose. We are trying to achieve a goal. If we are trying to find the nearest Bunnings we can test different routes and modes of transport in our imagination first, and then test them in real life to fit the purposes of; Gerald Edelman in NPQ Create a Brain (Artificial Intelligence) Buying a hammer, Speed of acquisition Minimal cost. Buying a hammer, Speed of acquisition Minimal cost. Our brain has purpose and so it creates new ideas and procedures – new information. It evolves making new connections between neurons. Societies and cultures do likewise; being an extension of the beings in them; they test ideas, adapt -making changes – then enforce rules when they have found the best fit. I have talked before about how rigid rules and hierarchies can actually stifle this evolutionary progression in societies. Cultures and societies can and do collapse – the death of a species – they can also spread memes like genes which hold the information for future use. can actually stifle But both animals and societies (groups of animals) have purpose.  In simple life forms the reproduction of the species is the purpose that drives everything. In simple cultures (groups) it is also the maintaining of the individuals to reproductive age to spread the species. But what is the purpose of the universe? What could the intrinsic purpose of a rock be?\ We, of course, have many purposes that are not directly related to the extension or maintenance of the entire species instead many relate solely to a good and happy life. Many people don’t breed but still have purpose. Humans just like many animals have dopamine receptors which give us pleasure from certain activities, and stress responses that cause us discomfort from bad experiences. Many of our evolutionary choice processes are driven by the desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. In a grander sense, we can invent purposes for ourselves. Be it making the world a better place or being the best footballer ever. Purpose seems to be a fluid thing, one that bends and maybe even forms from the environment and society in which we live. It may not need a linear root at all. Some people commit suicide and there is some speculation that whales may beach themselves as a form of suicide. That goes against the central purpose to progress the species. And, most importantly, many people never have children but still have purpose. Our need for a purpose to evolution is the way we try to interpret and understand the world. We want linear connections; we want a cause and effect. But there can be no ultimate cause, for nothing could cause it. Linear lines are endless. I am trying to get away from this way of thinking in this article about evolution being the way to comprehend the universe. However, there may be a way for our linear mind to understand such a concept. Perhaps the universe works in the same way as our brain. It does not need an intrinsic purpose from which all sub-purposes branch. Each micro-part, each atom, each string, and each energy field constantly adapts to the other fields and particles around it, and to the larger form, planets, stars, and gravity. An inter-loop of 4 (and possibly more) dimensional informational transfers; small to large, group and field to group, and field is all in constant flow. Constantly adapting to itself. It just is, and will, continue to be but in a constantly changing and interactive way. In the same way, we refer to the sun rising today as being a sunrise as we called yesterday’s, even though the temperature is different, the hue more magenta, and our mood less happy. The purpose (if required) is to form in the micro-interaction and randomness of evolution. Thus creating a larger organismic form, and then feeding back to itself.  We can box these things to absolutes that never existed. I would like to make one more comment about how physics may be able to help us grasp the non-linear. The theory of the Higgs Boson – which has been supported by experiments in the Large Hadron Collider –  that a Higgs Boson particle does imbalance the field of energy which causes energy to become matter. Imbalance; which we mean to be a purpose away from its desired state. This imbalance is pulling to a purpose, pulling to nothing, pulling to balance and inactivity, to chaos to infinity, which is the purpose of the universe. The matter comes from imbalance the in-between nothing and infinity, the imperfection of Plato’s forms as everything pulls toward perfect nothingness. So here we have the purpose of the universe and all comes from its inability to achieve it. As it is with us. This is just a prelude to something larger for there are too many vague areas for a thorough argument. Please think and write a comment if you want to help. This was first published a long time ago (2014) on my website JeSaurai.net which is over 20 years old now. This was first published a long time ago (2014) on my website JeSaurai.net which is over 20 years old now.

The Quest for Purpose: Evolutionary Perspectives on Mind and Universe

This paper is available on arxiv under CC 4.0 license.
Authors:
(1) Sebastien Ferr ´e, Univ Rennes, CNRS, Inria, IRISA Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes, France and ferre@irisa.fr. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Abstraction and Reasoning Corpus (ARC) Related Work Object-centric Models for ARC Grids MDL-based Model Learning Evaluation Conclusion and Perspectives, References & Supplementary Materials 7 Conclusion and Perspectives We have presented a novel and general approach to efficiently learn skills at tasks that consist in generating structured outputs as a function of structured inputs. Following Chollet’s measure of intelligence, efficiently learning here means limited knowledge prior for the target scope of tasks, only a few examples per task, and low computational resources. Our approach is based on descriptive task models that combine object-centric patterns and computations, and on the MDL principle for guiding the search for models. We have detailed an application to ARC tasks on colored grids, and sketched an application to FlashFill tasks on strings. We have shown promising results, especially in terms of efficiency, model complexity, and model naturalness. Going further on ARC will require a substantial design effort as our current models cover so far a small subset of the knowledge priors that are required by ARC tasks (e.g., goal-directedness). For FlashFill tasks, the addition of a counterpart for loops and common functions is expected to suffice to match the state-of-the-art. References 1. Acquaviva, S., Pu, Y., Kryven, M., Sechopoulos, T., Wong, C., Ecanow, G., Nye, M., Tessler, M., Tenenbaum, J.: Communicating natural programs to humans and machines. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 35, 3731–3743 (2022) 2. Ainooson, J., Sanyal, D., Michelson, J.P., Yang, Y., Kunda, M.: An approach for solving tasks on the abstract reasoning corpus. arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.09425 (2023) 3. Alford, S., Gandhi, A., Rangamani, A., Banburski, A., Wang, T., Dandekar, S., Chin, J., Poggio, T.A., Chin, S.P.: Neural-guided, bidirectional program search for abstraction and reasoning. CoRR abs/2110.11536 (2021), https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.11536 4. Chollet, F.: On the measure of intelligence. arXiv preprint arXiv:1911.01547 (2019) 5. Chollet, F.: A definition of intelligence for the real world. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence 11(2), 27–30 (2020) 6. Devlin, J., Chang, M., Lee, K., Toutanova, K.: BERT: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In: Conf. North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, NAACL-HLT. pp. 4171– 4186. Assoc. Computational Linguistics (2019). https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/n19-1423 7. Elias, P.: Universal codeword sets and representations of the integers. IEEE Trans. Information Theory 21(2), 194–203 (1975) 8. Ellis, K., et al.: Dreamcoder: Bootstrapping inductive program synthesis with wake-sleep library learning. In: ACM Int. Conf. Programming Language Design and Implementation. pp. 835–850 (2021) 9. Faas, M., Leeuwen, M.v.: Vouw: geometric pattern mining using the MDL principle. In: Int. Symp. Intelligent Data Analysis. pp. 158–170. Springer (2020) 10. Fischer, R., Jakobs, M., Mucke, S., Morik, K.: Solving Abstract Reasoning Tasks with Gram- ¨ matical Evolution. In: LWDA. pp. 6–10. CEUR-WS 2738 (2020) 11. Goertzel, B.: Artificial general intelligence: concept, state of the art, and future prospects. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence 5(1), 1 (2014) 12. Grunwald, P., Roos, T.: Minimum description length revisited. International journal of math- ¨ ematics for industry 11(01) (2019) 13. Gulwani, S.: Automating string processing in spreadsheets using input-output examples. In: Symp. Principles of Programming Languages. pp. 317–330. ACM (2011) 14. Johnson, A., Vong, W.K., Lake, B., Gureckis, T.: Fast and flexible: Human program induction in abstract reasoning tasks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.05823 (2021) 15. Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Hinton, G.E.: Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Advances in neural information processing systems 25, 1097–1105 (2012) 16. Lake, B.M., Salakhutdinov, R., Tenenbaum, J.B.: Human-level concept learning through probabilistic program induction. Science 350(6266), 1332–1338 (2015) 17. Lieberman, H.: Your Wish is My Command. The Morgan Kaufmann series in interactive technologies, Morgan Kaufmann / Elsevier (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-55860- 688-3.x5000-3 18. Menon, A., Tamuz, O., Gulwani, S., Lampson, B., Kalai, A.: A machine learning framework for programming by example. In: Int. Conf. Machine Learning. pp. 187–195. PMLR (2013) 19. Muggleton, S., Raedt, L.D.: Inductive logic programming: Theory and methods. Journal of Logic Programming 19,20, 629–679 (1994) 20. Rissanen, J.: Modeling by shortest data description. Automatica 14(5), 465–471 (1978) 21. Silver, D., Huang, A., Maddison, C.J., Guez, A., Sifre, L., Van Den Driessche, G., Schrittwieser, J., Antonoglou, I., Panneershelvam, V., Lanctot, M., et al.: Mastering the game of Go with deep neural networks and tree search. Nature 529(7587), 484–489 (2016) 22. Vreeken, J., Van Leeuwen, M., Siebes, A.: Krimp: mining itemsets that compress. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 23(1), 169–214 (2011) 23. Xu, Y., Khalil, E.B., Sanner, S.: Graphs, constraints, and search for the abstraction and reasoning corpus. arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.09880 (2022) Supplementary Materials We here describe the contents of the supplementary file accompanying the paper. A public repository of the source code is also available at https://github.com/sebferre/ ARC-MDL for ARC and at https://github.com/sebferre/ARC-MDL-strings for FlashFill. There are two main directories: one for ARC tasks and another for FlashFill tasks. Task Sets The public task sets of ARC are available online at https://github.com/fchollet/ARC. There are two task sets: training tasks and evaluation tasks, each containing 400 tasks. The task set of FlashFill is made of the 14 examples in [13]. We provide them as JSON files in FlashFill/taskset/, using the same format as ARC tasks, except that strings and arrays of strings are used instead of colored grids. For convenience, we also provide the file FlashFill/taskset/all examples.json to allow for browsing all examples in one file. Results We provide the learning and prediction logs for each task set: – ARC/training tasks.log – ARC/evaluation tasks.log – FlashFill/tasks.log Each log file starts with the hyperparameter values, and ends with global statistical measures. For each task, it gives: – the detailed DL (description length) of the initial model; – the learning trace (including the pruning phase) as a sequence of refinements, and showing the decrease of the normalized DL; – the learned models before and after pruning and their detailed DL; – the best joint description for each training example, except for ARC evaluation tasks so as not to leak their contents to the AI developer (a recommendation made by F. Chollet); – the prediction for each training and test example; – and finally a few measures for the task. The measures given for each task and at the end are the following: – runtime-learning: learning time in seconds (including the pruning phase); – bits-train-error: the remaining error commited on output training grids, in bits; – acc-train-micro: the proportion of training output grids that are correctly predicted; – acc-train-macro: 1 if all training output grids are correctly predicted, 0 otherwise; – acc-train-mrr: Mean Reciprocal Rank (MRR) of correct predictions for training output grids, 1 if all first predictions are correct; – acc-test-micro: the proportion of test output grids that are correctly predicted; – acc-test-macro: 1 if all test output grids are correctly predicted, 0 otherwise; – acc-test-mrr: Mean Reciprocal Rank (MRR) of correct predictions for test output grids, 1 if all first predictions are correct. The reference measure in ARC is acc-test-macro. The micro measures provide a more fine-grained and more optimistic measure of success. For convenience, we also provide in ARC/solved tasks a picture for each of the 96 training ARC tasks that are solved by our approach. We kindly invite the reader to browse them to get a quick idea of the diversity of the tasks that our approach can solve. The pictures are screenshots from the UI provided along with ARC tasks. This paper is available on Arxiv under CC 4.0 license. This paper is available on arxiv under CC 4.0 license. Authors: (1) Sebastien Ferr ´e, Univ Rennes, CNRS, Inria, IRISA Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes, France and ferre@irisa.fr. This paper is available on arxiv under CC 4.0 license. Authors: Authors: (1) Sebastien Ferr ´e, Univ Rennes, CNRS, Inria, IRISA Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes, France and ferre@irisa.fr. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Abstract & Introduction Abstraction and Reasoning Corpus (ARC) Abstraction and Reasoning Corpus (ARC) Related Work Related Work Object-centric Models for ARC Grids Object-centric Models for ARC Grids MDL-based Model Learning MDL-based Model Learning Evaluation Evaluation Conclusion and Perspectives, References & Supplementary Materials Conclusion and Perspectives, References & Supplementary Materials 7 Conclusion and Perspectives We have presented a novel and general approach to efficiently learn skills at tasks that consist in generating structured outputs as a function of structured inputs. Following Chollet’s measure of intelligence, efficiently learning here means limited knowledge prior for the target scope of tasks, only a few examples per task, and low computational resources. Our approach is based on descriptive task models that combine object-centric patterns and computations, and on the MDL principle for guiding the search for models. We have detailed an application to ARC tasks on colored grids, and sketched an application to FlashFill tasks on strings. We have shown promising results, especially in terms of efficiency, model complexity, and model naturalness. Going further on ARC will require a substantial design effort as our current models cover so far a small subset of the knowledge priors that are required by ARC tasks (e.g., goal-directedness). For FlashFill tasks, the addition of a counterpart for loops and common functions is expected to suffice to match the state-of-the-art. References 1. Acquaviva, S., Pu, Y., Kryven, M., Sechopoulos, T., Wong, C., Ecanow, G., Nye, M., Tessler, M., Tenenbaum, J.: Communicating natural programs to humans and machines. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 35, 3731–3743 (2022) 2. Ainooson, J., Sanyal, D., Michelson, J.P., Yang, Y., Kunda, M.: An approach for solving tasks on the abstract reasoning corpus. arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.09425 (2023) 3. Alford, S., Gandhi, A., Rangamani, A., Banburski, A., Wang, T., Dandekar, S., Chin, J., Poggio, T.A., Chin, S.P.: Neural-guided, bidirectional program search for abstraction and reasoning. CoRR abs/2110.11536 (2021), https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.11536 4. Chollet, F.: On the measure of intelligence. arXiv preprint arXiv:1911.01547 (2019) 5. Chollet, F.: A definition of intelligence for the real world. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence 11(2), 27–30 (2020) 6. Devlin, J., Chang, M., Lee, K., Toutanova, K.: BERT: pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In: Conf. North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, NAACL-HLT. pp. 4171– 4186. Assoc. Computational Linguistics (2019). https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/n19-1423 7. Elias, P.: Universal codeword sets and representations of the integers. IEEE Trans. Information Theory 21(2), 194–203 (1975) 8. Ellis, K., et al.: Dreamcoder: Bootstrapping inductive program synthesis with wake-sleep library learning. In: ACM Int. Conf. Programming Language Design and Implementation. pp. 835–850 (2021) 9. Faas, M., Leeuwen, M.v.: Vouw: geometric pattern mining using the MDL principle. In: Int. Symp. Intelligent Data Analysis. pp. 158–170. Springer (2020) 10. Fischer, R., Jakobs, M., Mucke, S., Morik, K.: Solving Abstract Reasoning Tasks with Gram- ¨ matical Evolution. In: LWDA. pp. 6–10. CEUR-WS 2738 (2020) 11. Goertzel, B.: Artificial general intelligence: concept, state of the art, and future prospects. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence 5(1), 1 (2014) 12. Grunwald, P., Roos, T.: Minimum description length revisited. International journal of math- ¨ ematics for industry 11(01) (2019) 13. Gulwani, S.: Automating string processing in spreadsheets using input-output examples. In: Symp. Principles of Programming Languages. pp. 317–330. ACM (2011) 14. Johnson, A., Vong, W.K., Lake, B., Gureckis, T.: Fast and flexible: Human program induction in abstract reasoning tasks. arXiv preprint arXiv:2103.05823 (2021) 15. Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., Hinton, G.E.: Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Advances in neural information processing systems 25, 1097–1105 (2012) 16. Lake, B.M., Salakhutdinov, R., Tenenbaum, J.B.: Human-level concept learning through probabilistic program induction. Science 350(6266), 1332–1338 (2015) 17. Lieberman, H.: Your Wish is My Command. The Morgan Kaufmann series in interactive technologies, Morgan Kaufmann / Elsevier (2001). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-1-55860- 688-3.x5000-3 18. Menon, A., Tamuz, O., Gulwani, S., Lampson, B., Kalai, A.: A machine learning framework for programming by example. In: Int. Conf. Machine Learning. pp. 187–195. PMLR (2013) 19. Muggleton, S., Raedt, L.D.: Inductive logic programming: Theory and methods. Journal of Logic Programming 19,20, 629–679 (1994) 20. Rissanen, J.: Modeling by shortest data description. Automatica 14(5), 465–471 (1978) 21. Silver, D., Huang, A., Maddison, C.J., Guez, A., Sifre, L., Van Den Driessche, G., Schrittwieser, J., Antonoglou, I., Panneershelvam, V., Lanctot, M., et al.: Mastering the game of Go with deep neural networks and tree search. Nature 529(7587), 484–489 (2016) 22. Vreeken, J., Van Leeuwen, M., Siebes, A.: Krimp: mining itemsets that compress. Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery 23(1), 169–214 (2011) 23. Xu, Y., Khalil, E.B., Sanner, S.: Graphs, constraints, and search for the abstraction and reasoning corpus. arXiv preprint arXiv:2210.09880 (2022) Supplementary Materials We here describe the contents of the supplementary file accompanying the paper. A public repository of the source code is also available at https://github.com/sebferre/ ARC-MDL for ARC and at https://github.com/sebferre/ARC-MDL-strings for FlashFill. There are two main directories: one for ARC tasks and another for FlashFill tasks. Task Sets The public task sets of ARC are available online at https://github.com/fchollet/ARC. There are two task sets: training tasks and evaluation tasks, each containing 400 tasks. The task set of FlashFill is made of the 14 examples in [13]. We provide them as JSON files in FlashFill/taskset/, using the same format as ARC tasks, except that strings and arrays of strings are used instead of colored grids. For convenience, we also provide the file FlashFill/taskset/all examples.json to allow for browsing all examples in one file. Results We provide the learning and prediction logs for each task set: – ARC/training tasks.log – ARC/evaluation tasks.log – FlashFill/tasks.log Each log file starts with the hyperparameter values, and ends with global statistical measures. For each task, it gives: – the detailed DL (description length) of the initial model; – the learning trace (including the pruning phase) as a sequence of refinements, and showing the decrease of the normalized DL; – the learned models before and after pruning and their detailed DL; – the best joint description for each training example, except for ARC evaluation tasks so as not to leak their contents to the AI developer (a recommendation made by F. Chollet); – the prediction for each training and test example; – and finally a few measures for the task. The measures given for each task and at the end are the following: – runtime-learning: learning time in seconds (including the pruning phase); – bits-train-error: the remaining error commited on output training grids, in bits; – acc-train-micro: the proportion of training output grids that are correctly predicted; – acc-train-macro: 1 if all training output grids are correctly predicted, 0 otherwise; – acc-train-mrr: Mean Reciprocal Rank (MRR) of correct predictions for training output grids, 1 if all first predictions are correct; – acc-test-micro: the proportion of test output grids that are correctly predicted; – acc-test-macro: 1 if all test output grids are correctly predicted, 0 otherwise; – acc-test-mrr: Mean Reciprocal Rank (MRR) of correct predictions for test output grids, 1 if all first predictions are correct. The reference measure in ARC is acc-test-macro. The micro measures provide a more fine-grained and more optimistic measure of success. For convenience, we also provide in ARC/solved tasks a picture for each of the 96 training ARC tasks that are solved by our approach. We kindly invite the reader to browse them to get a quick idea of the diversity of the tasks that our approach can solve. The pictures are screenshots from the UI provided along with ARC tasks. This paper is available on Arxiv under CC 4.0 license. Arxiv

Conclusion and Perspectives, References & Supplementary Materials: Our Journey With ARC

Authors: (1) William P. Wagner IV, Claremont Graduate University. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Definition of Key Terms Fundamentals of Internet Operation Encapsulation Usage-Based Economic Models Net Neutrality Legal History Researcher Conclusions Areas for Further Exploration & References 9. Areas for Further Exploration • Net Neutrality at the State and Local Level. • Legislation affecting local municipalities providing public internet. • Effects of Net Neutrality on 5G deployment and vice versa. • The mechanism for resolving inter-ISP disputes. • The effects of stimulus on supply-side or demand-side economics. References [1] FCC Adopts a Policy Statement Regarding Network Neutrality, Tech Law Journal, 2005, No Author Cited, http://www.techlawjournal.com/topstories/2005/20050 805.asp [2] FCC Passes Compromise Net Neutrality Rules. December 21, 2010. Wired, Sam Gustin. https://www.wired.com/2010/12/fcc-order/ [3] Net Neutrality Explained: What It Means (and Why It Matters). November 23, 2017. Fortune, Andrew Nusca. [4] Net Neutrality in Canada & The Telus Incident Of 2005, December 7, 2017, Sarah Bauer, https://www.navigatormm.com/blog/net-neutrality-incanada-the-telus-incident-of-2005/ [5] Why is the Internet so Important? Reference.com https://www.reference.com/technology/internetimportant-db9d1faab5337241 [6] 47 U.S.C. § 230(b)(2). [7] 47 U.S.C. § 230(b)(1). [8] GN Docket No. 17-199 - In the Matter of: Inquiry Concerning Deployment of Advanced Telecommunications Capability to All Americans in a Reasonable and Timely Fashion. FCC 2018 BROADBAND DEPLOYMENT Report. Adopted: February 2, 2018, Released: February 2, 2018. By the Commission: Chairman Pai and Commissioners O’Rielly and Carr issuing separate statements; Commissioners Clyburn and Rosenworcel dissenting and issuing separate statements. Paragraph 15. [9] RFC 3233 Defining the IETF and 3935 A Mission Statement for the IETF. [10] https://github.com/quicwg [11] FCC Global Broadband Deployment Report 2016 [12] Verizon Reply at 63; Letter from Robert C. Barber, AT&T to Marlene H. Dortch, Secretary, FCC, WC Docket No. 10-90. Attach. at 15-19 (filed July 30, 2014) (AT&T July 30, 2014 Ex Parte Letter). [13] FCC POLICY STATEMENT, 2005, [14] FCC 2015 REPORT AND ORDER ON REMAND, DECLARATORY RULING, AND ORDER. Paragraph 29. [15] United States Court of Appeals FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT FILED: MAY 1, 2017. No. 15-1063. UNITED STATES TELECOM ASSOCIATION, PETITIONER v. FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION AND UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, RESPONDENTS INDEPENDENT TELEPHONE & TELECOMMUNICATIONS ALLIANCE, ET AL., INTERVENORS. This paper is under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 DEED license. available on arxiv

A Technical Perspective on Net Neutrality: Areas for Further Exploration

If you read about 3d in CSS and didn’t fully understand how to make 3d in the way you want using plain CSS, I hope this mini article can be of help. In the end, you will be able to build something like this :) https://codepen.io/juliashlykova/pen/XWQzXVm?embedable=true Perspective What is in CSS? When we set for the element, it tells the browser that a child of this element should behave as though they are in 3D space. perspective perspective determines the distance between user and z=0 plane. Amount of perspective I tried to figure out how it can be that the more perspective amount we set, the less perspective we see. It was really confusing for me at first. Unless I draw some schema: When we change the z coordinate ( ) for the child, we move the child along this imaginary z-axis toward the user. So the further this z=0 plane is from us, the less noticeable the change is. translateZ() Perspective-origin determines the position of the user’s eyes relative to the transformed elements. By default, this position is centered: perspective-origin: horisontal-position vertical-position perspective-origin: 50% 50% Transform-style allows children of the element to be positioned in 3D space. And my question was: but isn’t it what perspective for? Actually, no. doesn’t add depth. If there is no perspective in the parent’s element, then we won’t see actual 3d- representation: transform-style: preserve-3d Transform-style https://codepen.io/juliashlykova/pen/BaEmWqq?editors=1100&embedable=true just allows children to live in their own 3D space. transform-style: preserve-3d Book Animation Now, let’s do some cool animation 😃. First of all, our body will look like this: index.html <div class="container">
    <div class="book">
      <span class="shadow"></span>
      <div class="back"></div>
      <div class="cover-end"></div>
      <div class="page last">
        <button class="btn-tale">Tale begins...</button>
      </div>
      <div class="page third"></div>
      <div class="page second"></div>
      <div class="page first"></div>
      <div class="cover">
        <img src="https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2024/03/30/12/44/landscape-8664708_1280.png" alt="">
      </div>
    </div>
  </div> In what follows, I omit insignificant properties for the topic; you can look at them in the original code in the introduction. We have a block for every page since every page will behave differently. Let’s first add to the container block: div perspective .container {
  perspective: 500px;
  perspective-origin: 50% 50%;
} We use default perspective-origin. But I preferred to explicitly set it for better understanding. So, our eyes are at the center of the container and plane is at 500px distance from us. z=0 At this  point, our block is set on the plane and doesn’t have any 3d features. Let’s add to allow pages to behave in their own 3d-space: book z=0 transform-style .book {
  position: relative;
  transform-style: preserve-3d;
}

.book>div {
  position: absolute;
  top: 0;
  left:0;
  transition: transform 2s;
} Now, let’s add actual 3d :) .cover {
  transform: scaleY(1.05) rotateY(-10deg);
}

.page.first {
  transform: translateX(2px) rotateY(-10deg);
}

.page.second {
  transform: translateX(4px) rotateY(-10deg);
}

.page.third {
  transform: translateX(6px) rotateY(-10deg);
}

.page.last {
  transform: translateX(8px) rotateY(-10deg);
} To achieve volume, we move every page a little to the right and rotate it around the y-axis. Now, let’s change the behavior of the book when we hover over it: .book:hover .cover{
  transform: rotateY(-150deg);
}

.book:hover .page.first{
  transform: translateX(2px) rotateY(-150deg);
}

.book:hover .page.second{
  transform: translateX(4px) rotateY(-130deg);
}

.book:hover .page.third{
  transform: translateX(6px) rotateY(-110deg);
} Alright, here, we change rotation from to more extreme values to achieve the “opening effect.” Also, we should save our , since transform rewrites all its’ previous values. -10deg translateX And… that’s it! I hope you understand now a little more about perspective in CSS 🙂.

How to Create a 3D Effect With CSS Perspective and Book Animation

Authors: (1) William P. Wagner IV, Claremont Graduate University. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Definition of Key Terms Fundamentals of Internet Operation Encapsulation Usage-Based Economic Models Net Neutrality Legal History Researcher Conclusions Areas for Further Exploration & References 5. Usage-Based Economic Models 5.1. Traditional Analog Usage-Based Billing To understand basic Internet networking economics, we can start with a comparison to analog phone lines. Advantage: Because each line was separate, a user was guaranteed a certain level of service once a connection was made. Disadvantage: If there were too many users and not enough lines, there was no connection – “All Circuits Are Busy.” Disadvantage: The line and its bandwidth are unused when no-one is talking on that line. Economic Impact: Fixed cost makes upfront budgeting linear, but very susceptible to overuse or underuse leading to either poor user experience or wasted resources. 5.2. Digital “Best-Effort” Connections A digital Best Effort network connection means that the network does not guarantee the delivery of a given packet. It is up to the sender and receiver to confirm that all information was transferred correctly. The Internet is a best effort delivery system, and this has advantages and disadvantages. Advantage: Shared circuits mean more flexibility in allocating loads. Advantage: The same networking hardware can be used to carry Voice, Video, Multimedia, and Data. Disadvantage: If there are too many users and not enough bandwidth, the connection may slow down. Disadvantage: If the connection slows too much, certain applications may fail. For example: A voice conversation may no longer be intelligible, or video quality may suffer or even stop. Disadvantage: Both end-points will require computational power for error checking. 5.3. Measuring Internet Usage Because the Internet is 100% digital, all information can be measured in 1s and 0s. Binary. Usage is measured by how many 1s and 0s can pass through a given point in a certain amount of time. Each 1 or 0 is a bit. A bit is the smallest possible unit of measure. There are two basic measures of usage: speed and total data. Speed refers to bits per second. The faster a connection, also referred to as higher bandwidth, the more 1s and 0s that can pass through that point in a given second. This measurement takes into account all factors that affect speed at a given point but does not necessarily give a full picture of end-to-end speed. Measured in bits per second (bps, Kbps, Mbps, Gbps). refers to the total amount of data to be transmitted regardless of time. Usually measured in Bytes (Byte, KB, MB, GB, TB). 1 Byte = 8 bits. Data 5.4. Basic Internet Billing Structures 5.4.1 Bandwidth Only A customer buys a certain amount of bandwidth. Can be thought of as a pipe of fixed size. The customer is paying for the diameter of the pipe. Home users buy a smaller pipe. Corporate users buy a bigger pipe. 5.4.2. Data Only A customer buys the ability to download a certain amount of data at whatever speeds the network wants to allocate. The pipe diameter can change, and the customer cannot control it. Not a very common solution. 5.4.3. Combination of Bandwidth and Data. A customer agrees to pay a certain amount for guaranteed speed up to a certain amount of data, so the diameter of the pipe is fixed at a larger size, up to a certain amount of data, at which point the pipe may get smaller based on the network’s needs or the customer pays a premium for a larger pipe. 5.4.4. Dark Fiber Additional flexibility is gained from Dark Fiber (not Dark Web). Larger customers may use Dark Fiber – fiber that is allocated as shared use. The line is said to remain “dark” until a given customer leasesit for a short period of time. The same resources are allocated to a small number of companies to share on a first-come / first-served basis as needed. Dark fiber may be allocated in advance (more expensive) or on the fly (less expensive), however dynamic switching on the fly may result in delay, so you would not want to use dynamic for something like the Superbowl. 5.5. Encapsulation, Usage and Billing None of the aforementioned billing structures needs to address content because of encapsulation. Any application data is encapsulated before going on the network. The network engineers and administrators do not need to know what application or content is travelling over the network because it is all encapsulated. And application programmers and engineers don’t need to worry about hardware. Usage can be measured at any point very easily down to the smallest unit – 1 bit. Currently the Internet Service Provider (ISP), who owns the lines, satellites, and bandwidth carrying the data, bills their customer based on usage – not content. The ISP sets a price for their bandwidth and it is up to the ISP’s customer to determine their individual needs or the needs of their customers. The customer may be a single individual household, a large internet streaming service, or another ISP. The customer decides what is necessary to meet their needs and purchases sufficient bandwidth and data from the ISP. The Hardware and Networking layers of the Internet by definition, do not care what content that data is carrying. Further, it is up to the customer to make sure that they have sufficient infrastructure, computational power, and bandwidth to serve their own customer’s needs. The ISP is only responsible for their side of the network connection. 5.6. Stimulus As noted in the introduction, it is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the effects of any stimulus to the equation, however it should be pointed out that various countries including the U.S., most of Europe, Japan, Australia and many others, have employed different methods of supply-side stimulus to encourage the spread of broadband availability and speed improvement – as well as differing methods to affect demand-side consumer price[11]. This paper is under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 DEED license. available on arxiv

A Technical Perspective on Net Neutrality: Usage-Based Economic Models

Authors: (1) William P. Wagner IV, Claremont Graduate University. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Definition of Key Terms Fundamentals of Internet Operation Encapsulation Usage-Based Economic Models Net Neutrality Legal History Researcher Conclusions Areas for Further Exploration & References Abstract This paper serves as a brief technical examination of Net Neutrality and the Internet fundamentals relevant to the discussion. This document seeks to provide sufficient technical perspective that it may inform the political and economic debate surrounding the issue in the United States. Further, this research demonstrates that existing Internet economics are based strictly on usage, and that this model can account for all uses. Finally, I will argue that there should be some legislation and regulation of ISPs with regard to Net Neutrality in the U.S. Keywords - Net Neutrality, Internet, ISP, Provider, Government Regulation 1. Introduction Net Neutrality has been in the news over the last decade as a topic of political, economic, and civil rights consideration in the United States [1][2][3]. As documented in the rest of this paper, The U.S. Government as well as those of other nations [4], state and local governments, the national private networks that make up the Internet backbone, and major technology and content providers are all engaged in an active push-pull to define internet standards that protect innovation, corporate interests, and consumer needs. The Internet is fundamental to success in the modern world [5]. Communities, law enforcement, hospitals, militaries, corporations, and individuals with a certain level of access to the internet are all demonstrably better equipped for success in the current United States and globally. In 1996, in section 230(b) of the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, Congress describes its national Internet policy. Specifically, Congress states that it is the policy of the United States “to preserve the vibrant and competitive free market that presently exists for the Internet” [6] and “to promote the continued development of the Internet [7].” Because of this need, it has become desirable for infrastructure planning and budgeting to define minimum standards. What those minimum standards are and what mechanism should regulate them is the first piece of the Net Neutrality debate. Proponents of Net Neutrality want legislation that prevents ISPs from restricting or prioritizing traffic – known as “fast lanes” – claiming this will stifle freemarket innovation, investment, expansion, and user choice along the “Edge” of the Internet. Opponents of Net Neutrality claim the legislation will stifle freemarket innovation and expansion by ISPs. As illustrated in fig.1, the consumer’s interests are protected through a combination of free enterprise and legislation, so this paper explores any relevant technical considerations and existing protocols, before moving to the economic models, then finally the legal fight in the courts. This research paper demonstrates how all Internet traffic uses a process known as Encapsulation to achieve complete separation between the content/application developers, and the hardware/networking engineers. Finally, this paper explains how the current economic model, based strictly on usage, accounts for all internet traffic down to the smallest possible unit of measure – a single bit. It is beyond the scope of this paper to fully explore the socio-political and economic ramifications of any changes to the current system such as supply-side assistance that would encourage network expansion vs. demand-side stimulus to reduce consumer cost, however this researcher will provide some legal history and make some observations on the current state of the political and legal debate. This paper is under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 DEED license. available on arxiv

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