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The response to our previous post, , was extraordinary - we’ve fielded dozens of calls from enterprises asking us for repatriation advice. We have aggregated those responses into this new post, where we dig a little deeper into the costs and savings associated with repatriation to make it easier for you to put together your own analysis. Migration of data is a daunting task for many. In practice, they target new data to come to MinIO and take their sweet time to migrate old data from the cloud or leave it in place and not grow. How to Repatriate From AWS S3 to MinIO Repatriation Overview To repatriate data from AWS S3, you will follow these general guidelines: Determine the specific buckets and objects that need to be repatriated from AWS S3. Make sure you understand business needs and compliance requirements on a bucket-by-bucket basis. Review Data Requirements: You’ve already decided to repatriate to MinIO, now you can choose to run MinIO in an on-premises data center or at another cloud provider or colocation facility. Using the requirements from #1, you will select hardware or instances for forecasted storage, transfer and availability needs. Identify Repatriation Destination: Plan and execute the transfer of data from AWS S3 to MinIO. Simply use MinIO's built-in Batch Replication or mirror using the MinIO Client (see for details). There are several additional methods you can use for data transfer, such as using AWS DataSync, AWS Snowball or , or directly using AWS APIs. Data Transfer: How to Repatriate From AWS S3 to MinIO TD SYNNEX data migration Ensure that appropriate access controls and permissions are set up for the repatriated data on a per-bucket basis. This includes IAM and bucket policies for managing user access, authentication, and authorization to ensure the security of the data. Data Access and Permissions: It is critical to preserve the object lock retention and legal hold policies after the migration. The target object store has to interpret the rules in the same way as Amazon S3. If you are unsure, ask for the on the target object store implementation. Object Locks: Cohasset Associates Compliance Assessment Define and implement a data lifecycle management strategy for the repatriated data. This includes defining retention policies, backup and recovery procedures, and data archiving practices on a per-bucket basis. Data Lifecycle Management: Validate the transferred data to ensure its integrity and completeness. Perform necessary checks and tests to ensure that the data has been successfully transferred without any corruption or loss. After the transfer, the object name, ETag and metadata, checksum and the number of objects all match between the source and destination. Data Validation: The good news is that if you follow cloud-native principles to build your applications, then all you will have to do is reconfigure them for the new MinIO endpoint. However, if your applications and workflows were designed to work with the AWS ecosystem, make the necessary updates to accommodate the repatriated data. This may involve updating configurations, reconfiguring integrations or in some cases modifying code. Update Applications and Workflows: Continuously monitor and optimize the repatriated data environment to ensure optimal performance, cost-efficiency, and adherence to data management best practices. Monitor and Optimize: Repatriation Steps There are many factors to consider when budgeting and planning for cloud repatriation. Fortunately, our engineers have done this with many customers and we’ve developed a detailed plan for you. We have customers that have repatriated everything from a handful of workloads to hundreds of petabytes. The biggest planning task is to think through choices around networking, leased bandwidth, server hardware, archiving costs for the data not selected to be repatriated, and the human cost of managing and maintaining your own cloud infrastructure. Estimate these costs and plan for them. Cloud repatriation costs will include data egress fees for moving the data from the cloud back to the data center. These fees are intentionally high enough to compel cloud lock-in. Take note of these high egress fees - they substantiate the economic argument to leave the public cloud because, as the amount of data you manage grows, the egress fees increase. Therefore, if you’re going to repatriate, it pays to take action sooner rather than later. We’re going to focus on data and metadata that must be moved – this is eighty percent of the work required to repatriate. Metadata includes bucket properties and policies (access management based on access/secret key, lifecycle management, encryption, anonymous public access, object locking and versioning). Let’s focus on data (objects) for now. For each namespace you want to migrate, take inventory of the buckets and objects you want to move. It is likely that your DevOps team already knows which buckets hold important current data. You can also use . At a high level, this will look something like: Amazon S3 Inventory Namespace Total Buckets Total Object Count Total Object Size (GB) Daily Total Upload (TB) Daily Total Download (TB) ns-001 166 47,751,258 980,014.48 50.04 14.80 ns-002 44 24,320,810 615,033.35 23.84 675.81 ns-002 648 88,207,041 601,298.91 328.25 620.93 ns-001 240 68,394,231 128,042.16 62.48 12.45 The next step is to list, by namespace, each bucket and its properties for every bucket you’re going to migrate. Note the application(s) that store and read data in that bucket. Based on usage, classify each bucket as hot, warm or cold tier data. In an abridged version, this will look something like Bucket Name Properties App(s) Hot/Warm/Cold Tier A Copy and paste JSON here Spark, Iceberg, Dremio Hot B Copy and paste JSON here Elastic Warm C Copy and paste JSON here Elastic (snapshots) Cold You have some decisions to make about data lifecycle management at this point and pay close attention because here’s a great way to save money on AWS fees. Categorize objects in each bucket as hot, warm or cold based on how frequently they are accessed. A great place to save money is to migrate cold tier buckets directly to S3 Glacier – there’s no reason to incur egress fees to download just to upload again. Depending on the amount of data you’re repatriating, you have a few options to choose how to migrate. We recommend that you load and work with new data on the new MinIO cluster while copying hot and warm data to the new cluster over time. The amount of time and bandwidth needed to copy objects will, of course, depend on the number and size of the objects you’re copying. Here’s where it will be very helpful to calculate the total data that you’re going to repatriate from AWS S3. Look at your inventory and total the size of all the buckets that are classified as hot and warm. Total Hot and Warm Tier Data = 1,534,096.7 GB Available bandwidth = 10 Gbps Minimum Transfer Time required (total object size / available bandwidth) = 14.2 days Calculate data egress fees based on the above total. I’m using , but your organization may qualify for a discount from AWS. I’m also using 10 Gbps as the connection bandwidth, but you may have more or less at your disposal. Finally, I’m working from the assumption that one-third of S3 data will merely be shifted to S3 Glacier Deep Archive. list price Total Data Tiered to S3 Glacier = 767,048.337 GB S3 to S3 Glacier transfer fees ($0.05/1000 objects) = $3,773.11 S3 Glacier Deep Archive monthly storage fee = $760 Don’t forget to budget for S3 Glacier Deep Archive usage moving forward. Total Data to be Transferred = 1,534,096.7 GB First 10 TB at $0.09/GB = $900 Next 40 TB at $0.085/GB = $3,400 Next 100 TB at $0.07/GB = $70,000 Additional over 150 TB at $0.05/GB = $69,205 Total Egress Fees = $143,504 For the sake of simplicity, the above calculation includes neither the fee for per object operations ($0.40/1m) nor the cost of LISTing ($5/1m). For very large repatriation projects, we can also compress objects before sending them across the network, saving you some of the cost of egress fees. Another option is to use AWS Snowball to transfer objects. Snowball devices are each 80TB, so we know up front that we need 20 of them for our repatriation effort. The per-device fee includes 10 days of use, plus 2 days for shipping. Additional days are available for $30/device. 20 Snowball Devices Service Fee ($300 ea) = $6,000 R/T shipping (3-5 days at $400/device) = $8,000 S3 data out ($0.02/GB) = $30,682 Total Snowball Fees = $38,981.93 AWS will charge you standard request, storage, and data transfer rates to read from and write to AWS services including and . There are further considerations when working with . For S3 export jobs, data transferred to your Snow Family device from S3 are billed at standard S3 charges for operations such as LIST, GET, and others. You are also charged standard rates for Amazon CloudWatch Logs, Amazon CloudWatch Metrics, and Amazon CloudWatch Events. Amazon S3 AWS Key Management Service (KMS) Amazon S3 storage classes Now we know how long it will take to migrate this massive amount of data and the cost. Make a business decision as to which method meets your needs based on the combination of timing and fees. At this point, we also know the requirements for the hardware needed to run MinIO on-prem or at a colocation facility. Take the requirement above for 1.5PB of storage, estimate data growth, and consult our page and . Recommended Hardware & Configuration Selecting the Best Hardware for Your MinIO Deployment The first step is to recreate your S3 buckets in MinIO. You’re going to have to do this regardless of how you choose to migrate objects. While both S3 and MinIO store objects using server-side encryption, you don’t have to worry about migrating encryption keys. You can connect to your KMS of choice using . This way, new keys will be automatically generated for you as encrypted tenants and buckets are created in MinIO. MinIO KES to manage encryption keys You have multiple options to copy objects: Batch Replication and . My previous blog post, included detailed instructions for both methods. You can copy objects directly from S3 to on-prem MinIO, or use a temporary MinIO cluster running on EC2 to query S3 and then mirror to on-prem MinIO. mc mirror How to Repatriate From AWS S3 to MinIO Typically, customers use tools we wrote combined with AWS Snowball or TD SYNNEX’s data migration hardware and services to move larger amounts of data (over 1 PB). MinIO recently partnered with Western Digital and TD SYNNEX to field a Snowball alternative. Customers can schedule windows to take delivery of the Western Digital hardware and pay for what they need during the rental period. More importantly, the service is not tied to a specific cloud - meaning the business can use the service to move data into, out of, and across clouds - all using the ubiquitous S3 protocol. Additional details on the service can be found on the page on the TD SYNNEX site. Data Migration Service Bucket metadata, including policies and bucket properties, can be read using and then set up in MinIO. When you sign up for MinIO SUBNET, our engineers will work with you to migrate these settings from AWS S3: access management based on access key/secret key, lifecycle management policies, encryption, anonymous public access, immutability and versioning. One note about versioning, AWS version ID isn’t usually preserved when data is migrated because each version ID is an internal UUID. This is largely not a problem for customers because objects are typically called by name. However, if AWS version ID is required, then we have an extension that will preserve it in MinIO and we’ll help you enable it. get-bucket S3 API calls Pay particular attention to . S3 isn’t going to be the only part of AWS’s infrastructure that you leave behind. You will have a lot of service accounts for applications to use when accessing S3 buckets. This would be a good time to list and audit all of your service accounts. Then you can decide whether or not to recreate them in your identity provider. If you choose to automate, then use Amazon Cognito to share IAM information with external OpenID Connect IDPs and AD/LDAP. IAM and bucket policies Pay particular attention to Data Lifecycle Management, such as object retention, object locking and archive/tiering. Run a on each bucket to obtain a human-readable JSON list of lifecycle rules. You can easily recreate AWS S3 settings using MinIO Console or MinIO Client (mc). Use commands such as and to pinpoint objects that require special security and governance treatment. get-bucket-lifecycle-configuration get-object-legal-hold get-object-lock-configuration While we’re on the subject of lifecycle, let’s talk about backup and disaster recovery for a moment. Do you want an additional MinIO cluster to replicate to, for backup and disaster recovery? After objects are copied from AWS S3 to MinIO, it’s important to validate data integrity. The easiest way to do this is to use the MinIO Client to run against old buckets in S3 and new buckets on MinIO. This will compute the difference between the buckets and return a list of only those objects that are missing or different. This command takes the arguments of the source and target buckets. For your convenience, you may want to create for S3 and MinIO so you don’t have to keep typing out full addresses and credentials. For example: mc diff aliases mc diff s3/bucket1 minio/bucket1 The great news is that all you have to do is point existing apps at the new MinIO endpoint. Configurations can be rewritten app by app over a period of time. Migrating data in object storage is less disruptive than a filesystem, just change the URL to read/write from a new cluster. Note that if you previously relied on AWS services to support your applications, those won’t be present in your data center, so you’ll have to replace them with their open-source equivalent and rewrite some code. For example, Athena can be replaced with Spark SQL, Apache Hive and Presto, Kinesis with Apache Kafka, and AWS Glue with Apache Airflow. If your S3 migration is part of a larger effort to move an entire application on-prem, then chances are you used to call downstream services when new data arrived. If this is the case, then do not fear - MinIO supports as well. The most straightforward migration here would be to implement a custom webhook to receive the notification. However, if you need a destination that is more durable and resilient, then use messaging services such as Kafka or RabbitMQ. We also support sending events to databases such as PostgreSQL and MySQL. S3 event notifications event notification Now that you’ve completed repatriating, it’s time to turn your attention to storage operation, monitoring and optimization. The good news is that no optimization is needed for MinIO – we’ve built optimization right into the software so you know you’re getting the best performance for your hardware. You’ll want to start monitoring your new MinIO cluster to assess resource utilization and performance on an ongoing basis. MinIO exposes via a Prometheus endpoint that you can consume in your . For more on monitoring, please see and . metrics monitoring and alerting platform of choice Multi-Cloud Monitoring and Alerting with Prometheus and Grafana Metrics with MinIO using OpenTelemetry, Flask, and Prometheus With , we have your back when it comes to with MinIO. Subscribers gain access to built-in automated troubleshooting tools to keep their clusters running smoothly. They also get unlimited, direct-to-engineer support in real-time via our support portal. We also help you future-proof your object storage investment with an annual architecture review. SUBNET Day 2 operations Migrate and Save It’s far from a secret that the days of writing blank checks to cloud providers are gone. Many businesses are currently evaluating their cloud spend to find potential savings. Now you have everything you need to start your migration from AWS S3 to MinIO, including concrete technical steps and a financial framework. If you get excited about the prospect of repatriation cost savings, then please reach out to us at . hello@min.io Also appears . here

All You Need to Know to Repatriate from AWS S3 to MinIO

AWS S3 থেকে MinIO-তে প্রত্যাবাসন করতে আপনার যা জানা দরকার

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There is a new preprint on , , where the authors concluded that, "GPT models perform worse than humans, on average, in solving letter string analogy tasks using the normal alphabet. Moreover, when such tasks are presented with counterfactual alphabets, these models display drops in accuracy that are not seen in humans, and the kinds of mistakes that these models make are different from the kinds of mistakes that humans make. These results imply that GPT models are still lacking the kind of abstract reasoning needed for human-like fluid intelligence." arXiv Using Counterfactual Tasks to Evaluate the Generality of Analogical Reasoning in Large Language Models Human intelligence and LLMs are not directly comparable for a few reasons: , what is the convergence between humans and LLMs? Or, what is the primary commonality between humans and LLMs? Digital. This means that what humans do on digital, that LLMs can do, is digitally delimited. First While it is clear that humans understand more than LLMs, which humans express on paper, in communications, and then on digital, LLMs are using what humans have made on digital, in a fraction of the vastness of human abilities. So, just the digital inputs and outputs of humans are comparable with LLMs. LLMs can be compared to a person learning a second language. However, the progress level should not be measured with someone who is a native speaker but with a native speaker of that language learning another language of similar difficulty. This implies that LLMs are trying to do what humans are great at in comparison with if humans were to learn machine language and communicate with it. What does it mean that, as the only non-living things, LLMs can do some of the intelligent things that humans can do, at least, on digital? It means that the similarities are not just what matters but divergence. LLMs can simply be told to make fake images, videos, or audio. They can be told to write fake information. They run the errand. They pay attention. They are aware of information from different sources. However, they have no emotional connection to anything. They show no remorse. They also have no knowledge of the consequences. They are the only non-organism that has what is parallel to a human mind, refuting the ubiquity of mind, suggested by panpsychism. The human mind has functions, and those functions have qualifiers. The collection of the qualifiers can be termed as consciousness, the super qualifier. LLMs would win over the human mind because of how good they would deliver on tasks. Many call them tools, but tools that can use language, an agent of being, to access many parts of the mind, including solving valuable problems in situations, is an elevation for LLMs. They are not like pets but like evolving cohabitants. AI Safety and Digital Memory Digital is not physical. This distinction is now important in an age where there is contamination in digital. AI can be used to find correlations in cardiology, particle physics, decipher papyrus, and so forth, but AI can also clone voices, deepfake images, videos, and generate convincing misinformation amid other vices. Some of these and other things were at least contained or a tad difficult in the past. In the physical, contaminants, like pathogens, require precautions against their sources, say water, air, forests, or others. Digital contaminants are freely able to spread with physical-representative digital, with little barriers. It will be important to note that whatever is not physical may not be as real, at times, if there is no guarantee that it is a transmission of live physical, or something extra verifiable. The internet is already unified, which, with its advantages, may not be a great thing anymore, as contamination can spread, including cyberattacks. There can be new ways to use AI as security agents, making detections of sources where harmful traffic or activities might be originating, which some are already doing. For any page on social media or the internet that a person would visit, there can be an AI reader assistant that goes ahead to interpret images, videos, audio, and stories on it. This is done by some browsers already for search results. It would be vital for social media, not just to say what is ahead while scrolling, but to blur some, if the image, video, or text would be problematic to the person's mental health, or does not have a physical representation likelihood or may be misleading. Some platforms may provide some features where, as people make posts they go through a filter, such that those who would see it will be sure of what they are seeing, as a real representation of the physical. along with digital use, where the working of memory, emotions, feelings, intelligence, and so forth, can be available as a what to consult on the side, against allowing digital results to carry a user away, before much can be done. How the human mind works, conceptually, may also be useful to go The importance of how the mind works as an attachment to digital results is to ensure that some of the effects of contaminated digital images that are sent are mitigated, with the ability to use intent to check distributions in the mind, before falling for it. Just like brain science, cognitive science, psychology, psychiatry, philosophy of mind, and the rest are driven by labels, AI is also being labeled. There are labels for different aspects of memory, like there are labels for types of emotions, feelings, and so forth, but the key importance in the human mind is how sets of impulses mechanize them, not what they are called. For AI, there are labels like emergent properties, layers, parameters, tokens, self-attention, and so forth. What will be important is to find parallels between the qualifiers of the human mind and those that are acting on digital for AI. This is different from direct comparisons of the parameters of LLMs to brain synapses. AI safety institutes may be focused on technical paths against AI risks, which are great, but parallels to the human mind, to know what AI is doing within digital, similar to how the mind qualifies functions, may be useful to set off alarms, or capability benchmarks, especially for wide distribution, thick sets of memory, sequences, and others. LLMs can interpret inputs, with their ability to summarize essays, similar to how biological senses can also interpret. This is an example of a distant parallel, to human sentience, qualifying inputs with memory functions. Research and development into the mind, theoretically, may be useful for safety, especially to develop counter agents, or counter qualifiers, against those that serve contaminations. Feature image source

AI Safety: Human Intelligence Beyond LLMs and Panpsychism

Welcome to this ”to-the-point” tutorial on how to quantize any Large Language Model (LLM) available on Hugging Face using llama.cpp. Whether you're a data scientist, a machine learning engineer, or simply an AI enthusiast, this guide is designed to clarify the process of model quantization and make it easy. By the end of this tutorial, you'll have a clear understanding of how to efficiently compress LLMs without significant loss in performance, enabling their deployment on resource-constrained environments. You can also use these model on your fav local setups using Ollama! GitGub Repo is here: https://github.com/mickymultani/QuantizeLLMs What is Model Quantization? Before we dive into the technicalities, let's briefly discuss what model quantization is and why it's important. Model quantization is a technique used to reduce the precision of the numbers used in a model's weights and activations. This process significantly reduces the model size and speeds up inference times, making it possible to deploy state-of-the-art models on devices with limited memory and computational power, such as mobile phones and embedded systems. Introducing llama.cpp llama.cpp is a powerful tool that facilitates the quantization of LLMs. It supports various quantization methods, making it highly versatile for different use cases. The tool is designed to work seamlessly with models from the Hugging Face Hub, which hosts a wide range of pre-trained models across various languages and domains. Setting Up Your Workspace This tutorial is designed with flexibility in mind, catering to both cloud-based environments and local setups. I personally conducted these steps on Google Colab, utilizing the NVIDIA Tesla T4 GPU, which provides a robust platform for model quantization and testing. However, you should not feel limited to this setup. The beauty of llama.cpp and the techniques covered in this guide is their adaptability to various environments, including local machines with GPU support. For instance, if you're using a MacBook with Apple Silicon, you can follow along and leverage the GPU support for model quantization, thanks to the cross-platform compatibility of the tools and libraries we are using. Setting Up on Google Colab Google Colab provides a convenient, cloud-based environment with access to powerful GPUs like the T4. If you choose Colab for this tutorial, make sure to select a GPU runtime by going to . This ensures that your notebook has access to the necessary computational resources. Runtime > Change runtime type > T4 GPU Running on MacBook with Apple Silicon For those opting to run the quantization process on a MacBook with Apple Silicon, ensure that you have the necessary development tools and libraries installed. While the setup might slightly differ from the Linux-based Colab environment, Python's ecosystem and the compilation of llama.cpp with CUDA support (or the equivalent for your specific GPU architecture) are well-documented, ensuring a smooth setup process. Setting Up Hugging Face Authentication Regardless of your platform, access to models from the Hugging Face Hub requires authentication. To seamlessly integrate this in your workflow, especially when working in collaborative or cloud-based environments like Google Colab, it's advisable to set up your Hugging Face authentication token securely. On Google Colab, you can safely store your Hugging Face token by using Colab's "Secrets" feature. This can be done by clicking on the "Key" icon in the sidebar, selecting "Secrets", and adding a new secret with the name and your Hugging Face token as the value. This method ensures that your token remains secure and is not exposed in your notebook's code. HF_TOKEN For local setups, consider setting the environment variable in your shell or utilizing the Hugging Face CLI to log in, thereby ensuring that your scripts have the necessary permissions to download and upload models to the Hub without hard-coding your credentials. HF_TOKEN Step-by-Step Tutorial Now, let's walk through the process of quantizing a model using llama.cpp. For this tutorial, we'll quantize the " " model from Hugging Face, but the steps can be applied to any model of your choice. google/gemma-2b-it 1. Setting Up Your Environment First, we need to clone the llama.cpp repository and install the necessary requirements: !git clone https://github.com/ggerganov/llama.cpp
!cd llama.cpp && LLAMA_CUBLAS=1 make && pip install -r requirements.txt This command clones the llama.cpp repository and compiles the necessary binaries with CUDA support for GPU acceleration. It also installs Python dependencies required for the process. 2. Downloading the Model Next, we download the model from Hugging Face Hub using the function. This function ensures that we have a local copy of the model for quantization: snapshot_download from huggingface_hub import snapshot_download

model_name = "google/gemma-2b-it"
base_model = "./original_model/"
snapshot_download(repo_id=model_name, local_dir=base_model, local_dir_use_symlinks=False) 3. Preparing the Model for Quantization Before quantizing, we convert the downloaded model to a format compatible with llama.cpp ( ). This step involves specifying the desired precision ( for half-precision floating point) and the output file: gguf f16 !mkdir ./quantized_model/
!python llama.cpp/convert-hf-to-gguf.py ./original_model/ --outtype f16 --outfile ./quantized_model/FP16.gguf 4. Quantizing the Model With the model in the correct format, we proceed to the quantization step. Here, we're using a quantization method called , which is specified in the list. This method quantizes the model to 4-bit precision with knowledge distillation and mapping techniques for better performance: q4_k_m methods import os

methods = ["q4_k_m"]
quantized_path = "./quantized_model/"

for m in methods:
    qtype = f"{quantized_path}/{m.upper()}.gguf"
    os.system("./llama.cpp/quantize "+quantized_path+"/FP16.gguf "+qtype+" "+m) 5. Testing the Quantized Model After quantization, it's important to test the model to ensure it performs as expected. The following command runs the quantized model with a sample prompt from a file, allowing you to assess its output quality: ! ./llama.cpp/main -m ./quantized_model/Q4_K_M.gguf -n 90 --repeat_penalty 1.0 --color -i -r "User: " -f llama.cpp/prompts/chat-with-bob.txt 6. Sharing Your Quantized Model Finally, if you wish to share your quantized model with the community, you can upload it to Hugging Face Hub using the and functions. This step involves creating a new repository for your quantized model and uploading the file: HfApi upload_file .gguf from huggingface_hub import HfApi, create_repo, upload_file

model_path = "./quantized_model/Q4_K_M.gguf"
repo_name = "gemma-2b-it-GGUF-quantized"
repo_url = create_repo(repo_name, private=False)

api = HfApi()
api.upload_file(
    path_or_fileobj=model_path,
    path_in_repo="Q4_K_M.gguf",
    repo_id="yourusername/gemma-2b-it-GGUF-quantized",
    repo_type="model",
) Make sure to replace with your actual Hugging Face username! "yourusername" Wrapping Up Congratulations! You've just learned how to quantize a large language model using llama.cpp. This process not only helps in deploying models to resource-constrained environments but also in reducing computational costs for inference. By sharing your quantized models, you contribute to a growing ecosystem of efficient AI models accessible to a broader audience. Quantization is a powerful tool in the machine learning practitioner's toolkit. Happy quantizing!

Quantizing Large Language Models With llama.cpp: A Clean Guide for 2024

A week from the succeeding Saturday, Mr. Skinner did not come down to the office

On Some Crucial Points in Psychoanalysis

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After this long digression

THE BATTLE FOR DELIVERANCE FROM THE MOTHER

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