In Machine Learning, the problem of classification involves predicting the categorical class label to which the query data point belongs. And the confusion matrix is a of the . tabular representation classification model’s performance This tutorial will help you understand the confusion matrix and the various metrics that you can calculate from the confusion matrix. We’ll start by explaining what classification is, the types of classification problems, and how to interpret the confusion matrix for a binary classification problem. Let's get started. Table of Contents What is Classification? Types of Classification 2.1. Binary Classification 2.2.  Multiclass Classification General Structure of the Confusion Matrix How to Calculate Evaluation Metrics from Confusion Matrix 4.1. Accuracy 4.2 Recall 4.3 Precision High Precision vs High Recall - When to Choose What? Generating the Confusion Matrix in scikit-learn Generating the Classification Report in scikit-learn What is Classification? In essence, classification algorithms aim at answering the question: “Given points, what’s the class label of a previously test, or query data point?” labeled training data unseen A classification problem could be as simple as classifying a given image as that of a cat or a dog. Or it could be as complex as examining brain scans to detect the presence or absence of tumors. Types of Classification Binary Classification In this tutorial, we’ll focus on the binary classification problem.  In binary classification, the class labels and are used. 1 0 Suppose you’re given a large dataset of student loans containing features such as the name of the university, tuition and employment details. You’d like to predict whether or not a new student with a specific tuition fee and employment status will default on the student loan. Notice how you’re trying to answer the question “Will the student default on the loan?”—and the answer is either a ‘ ’ or a  ‘ ’. Yes No You might as well think of other examples, say, identifying spam emails - the answers in this case are ‘ ’ or ‘ ’. Spam Not Spam In these examples, the answers ‘Yes’, ‘Spam’ indicate relevant classes, and in practice are encoded as class , and 1 the answers ‘No’ and ‘Not Spam’ are encoded as class . 0 Using disease diagnosis as another example, if the problem is to detect the presence of a disease: label indicates that the patient has the disease; and label indicates the absence of the disease. 1 0 This classification problem where the data points belong to one of the two classes is called . And we’ll build on binary classification in this tutorial. binary classification Multiclass Classification You can also have classification problems where you have more than two classes, called multiclass classification. For instance, classifying an email as ‘ ’ or ‘ ’ is a binary classification problem, whereas, categorizing emails as ‘ ’, ‘ ’ or ‘ ’ is a multiclass classification problem. Spam Not Spam School Work Personal Now that you’ve gained an understanding of the types of classification, let’s proceed to understand the confusion matrix. General Structure of the Confusion Matrix The general structure of the confusion matrix for binary classification is shown below: Let’s now define a few terms: When the actual label is 1, and the classifier also predicted the label to be 1 True Positive (TP): When the actual label is 0, but the classifier falsely predicted it to be 1 False Positive (FP): When the actual label is 0, and classifier also predicted as 0 True Negative (TN): When the actual label is 1, but the classifier predicted the label to be 0 False Negative (FN): Let’s now head over to the next section to understand the evaluation metrics for classification. You’ll learn them by asking questions and following up with answers—and the answers explain what the metric signifies. How to Calculate Evaluation Metrics from Confusion Matrix Accuracy Accuracy answers the question: “How often is the model correct?” The number of times the classifier predicted class , plus the number of times it predicted class . correctly 1 correctly 0 Now, look up from the matrix above, it’s the count of And the total number of predictions is the sum of counts in all 4 quadrants. True Positive (TP) + True Negative (TN). This this leads to the formula for accuracy as given below: Accuracy = TP + TN/ (Total Predictions) where, Total Predictions = TP + TN + FP + FN At the outset accuracy may seem like a good metric for evaluation. However, it is not a reliable metric when you have an imbalance in the class labels. Suppose you’re designing a model to predict if a person has a particular medical condition that is rare—say, it affects only 0.5% of the population. So in a population of 1000 people, about 5 people will likely have the disease. You clearly have a class imbalance in this case! The majority class is class indicating that the person doesn’t have that particular medical condition. 0 In this case, a naïve model that predicts the majority class all the time will be 99.5% accurate. However, such a model clearly isn't very helpful. Can you see why this is the case? The confusion matrix for this example will look like this: You’re making 1000 predictions. And for all of them, the predicted label is class 0. And 995 of them are actually correct (True Negatives!) And 5 of them are wrong. The accuracy score still works out to 995/1000 = 0.995 To sum up, distort accuracy scores. And the model is projected to perform better than what is truly warranted. imbalanced class labels Examples include problems like: Credit card transactions that are potentially fraudulent A medical condition that affects a very small fraction of the total population If the percentage of the minority class is , a model that predicts the majority class all the time will have an accuracy score of . p% 1 - p As you might have guessed by now, the error rate is . 1-accuracy score Instead of saying “ ”, if you’d like to say , then you’re talking error rates! My model is correct 98% of the time “My model is wrong 2% of the time” So it’s now time to learn about other metrics that are more useful in measuring a model’s performance. Recall Recall answers the question: “When it is a , how often is the model correct? Or, What of the does the model ?” actually positive case fraction positive labels predict correctly In essence, it’s the number of relevant cases that have been found by the model. Now, go back to the confusion matrix and look up the row to identify which predictions correspond to an actually positive label—that is, class . Actual 1 As you can see, it’s the TP + FN count. And the number of times the model got it right is equal to the TP count. So here’s our formula for recall: Recall = TP/ (TP + FN) Our previous model for disease detection did not identify any positive cases—so the TP count = 0. And that leaves us with a recall score of 0. So the model has a recall score of 0 even though its accuracy score is 0.995. Precision Precision answers the following question: “When the is , how often is it ?” prediction positive correct Once again, go back to the confusion matrix and look up under the column to identify which predictions correspond to a predicted positive label. And it’s the , as shown below: Predicted TP + FP count Here’s our formula for precision: Precision = TP/ (TP + FP) In practice, you’ll often hear people talk about the . Precision-Recall Trade-off This means you cannot maximize both precision and recall, and will have to choose one over the other—depending on the problem at hand. Let’s discuss that in the next section. High Precision vs High Recall - When to Choose What? For the problem that you’re solving, ask yourself the question: Which is worse - a False Positive (FP) or a False Negative (FN)? If you cannot have a False Negative (FN) – Maximize recall If you cannot have a False Positive (FP) – Maximize precision Let's revisit the previous examples of and disease detection . spam detection In which of the above cases would you prefer a ? higher recall Well, you probably guessed it right. It’s in the case of disease detection that you cannot afford to have a False Negative—therefore, you’ll need a high recall. Why?🤔 You would rather misclassify a patient as having the disease—which is a . And you’ll follow up with additional medical examination, and be extra cautious—rather than misclassify someone with the disease as healthy. In the worst case it could cost the person's life. False Positive(FP) 📧 Let us now look at the example of . Here, can be dangerous. spam detection False Positives(FP) Recall that in the problem of spam classification tagging an email as is said to be predicting a positive label. spam A spam or two in your inbox does not cost much but what if an email from a recruiter was misclassified as spam? And you never cared to look at it?😟 You’d lose a potential job opportunity. And here’s where you should . maximize precision Not detecting a spam email ( ) is not as impactful as predicting a recruiter’s email to be spam ( ). So remember to ask yourself the above questions, and choose accordingly. False Negative False Positive And that concludes our discussion. And it’s time to write some code.⏳ Generating the Confusion Matrix in scikit-learn Download the code used in this tutorial from . my GitHub repo Now, let’s see how you can generate the confusion matrix in scikit-learn. You’ll have ground truth labels . y_true And you’ll have the predicted labels . y_pred Here are the steps: Generate the arrays Generate the confusion matrix To know more about the implementation of confusion matrix in sklearn, read the docs . here Generating Classification Report in scikit-learn ▶️ Here’s how you can generate the classification report with metrics like accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score in scikit-learn. To summarize In this tutorial, you’ve learned: What is classification and its types, The general structure of the confusion matrix, How to calculate various metrics from the confusion matrix, and When to choose precision over recall and vice-versa. Congratulations on making it this far!🎉 📌Related Posts If you liked this post, here are a few other posts you may enjoy reading: ▶️ Document-Term Matrix in NLP: Count and TF-IDF Scores Explained ▶️ Learn K-Means Clustering by Quantizing Color Images in Python ▶️ 9 Best Data Engineering Courses You Should Take in 2022 If you’re looking to get started with Machine Learning, I wish you the very best in your journey! Happy learning and coding.🎉

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Confusion Matrix in Machine Learning: Everything You Need to Know

Confusion Matrix in Machine Learning: Everything You Need to Know

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