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Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on Some of Its Causes by Charles Babbage, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . Section 3 here SECTION 3. OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS IN THE ROYAL SOCIETY. The honour of belonging to the Royal Society is much sought after by medical men, as contributing to the success of their professional efforts, and two consequences result from it. In the first place, the pages of the Transactions of the Royal Society occasionally contain medical papers of very moderate merit; and, in the second, the preponderance of the medical interest introduces into the Society some of the jealousies of that profession. On the other hand, medicine is intimately connected with many sciences, and its professors are usually too much occupied in their practice to exert themselves, except upon great occasions. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Charles Babbage (1998).Reflections on the Decline of Science in England, and on Some of Its Causes. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/1216/pg1216-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE COLLEGES OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS

The age of the Internet began in earnest in April 1993 when it was released into the public domain. Since then, it has grown to become an all-pervading force in our lives, impacting the way we communicate, carry out business and banking transactions, entertain ourselves, spend our leisure time, and even order our food and groceries. All of this was inconceivable not all that long ago, as would be well remembered by the Boomers, Generation X, and even the early Millennials. Though many of them view the pre-digital era that existed till the very early Nineties with rose-tinted nostalgia, one can generally agree that the World Wide Web has done far more good than bad. That the Internet changed life as mankind knew it for thousands of years in a fundamental manner is a fact. It ushered in the digital revolution, which is possibly even more path-breaking in its impact on mankind than the harnessing of fire and the invention of the wheel. We are, in fact, in the throes of a digital revolution that has only about begun. If things weren't interesting enough for us, even as we see our lives transform at a breakneck speed thanks to the changes ushered in by the entry of the Internet into our lives, we need to brace ourselves for another epochal transformation caused by the advent of AI or Artificial Intelligence technology. Where AI is different from the technologies preceding it is in the fact that it is already autonomous of human oversight to some extent in its decision-making and may one day become fully independent, which has led to alarm among many, who feat that its large-scale adoption might lead to a dystopian nightmare straight out of an HG Wells sci-fi thriller. People fear that AI could render everybody from writers and surgeons to lawyers and teachers redundant, leading to an existential crisis on an epic scale. For all the fear-mongering around AI, which admittedly appears justified even to the brightest of human minds, many of whom have expressed their concerns about its dangers, it does offer us myriad benefits across several very practical applications. From preventing fraud and analyzing risks in the investment sector to carrying out complex scientific research by perusing complex data and from automating repetitive mundane tasks to transforming healthcare with its varied abilities, including interpreting data to help identify diseases and assisting in drug development, AI can be of immense service to mankind. AI is still essentially at a very nascent stage and many years away from a time where it is unilaterally and independently able to make major life-and-death decisions of its own volition. That is not to say that it never may, which is why governments, lawmakers, technologists, scientists and philosophers must utilise the time we have to regulate the technology and decide on the ethical framework within which it must be deployed. That the AI age has dawned upon us is a fact, but whether it will turn out to be all pervasive and more is something that we don't yet have the answer to. The Dot Com bubble, for instance, had nearly sunk the Internet revolution until the proponents of the technology proved its usefulness in many other ways. Who knows when the current rash of AI startups pitching a gazillion AI products might go belly up, making people wary of the technology to the extent that they may want to dump it? Alternatively, it may see its ups and downs and finally become the new normal in a much better-regulated and rationalized manner. In any case, we are in for an exciting time ahead. The age of the Internet began in earnest in April 1993 when it was released into the public domain. Since then, it has grown to become an all-pervading force in our lives, impacting the way we communicate, carry out business and banking transactions, entertain ourselves, spend our leisure time, and even order our food and groceries. All of this was inconceivable not all that long ago, as would be well remembered by the Boomers, Generation X, and even the early Millennials. Though many of them view the pre-digital era that existed till the very early Nineties with rose-tinted nostalgia, one can generally agree that the World Wide Web has done far more good than bad. That the Internet changed life as mankind knew it for thousands of years in a fundamental manner is a fact. It ushered in the digital revolution, which is possibly even more path-breaking in its impact on mankind than the harnessing of fire and the invention of the wheel. We are, in fact, in the throes of a digital revolution that has only about begun. If things weren't interesting enough for us, even as we see our lives transform at a breakneck speed thanks to the changes ushered in by the entry of the Internet into our lives, we need to brace ourselves for another epochal transformation caused by the advent of AI or Artificial Intelligence technology. Where AI is different from the technologies preceding it is in the fact that it is already autonomous of human oversight to some extent in its decision-making and may one day become fully independent, which has led to alarm among many, who feat that its large-scale adoption might lead to a dystopian nightmare straight out of an HG Wells sci-fi thriller. People fear that AI could render everybody from writers and surgeons to lawyers and teachers redundant, leading to an existential crisis on an epic scale. For all the fear-mongering around AI, which admittedly appears justified even to the brightest of human minds, many of whom have expressed their concerns about its dangers, it does offer us myriad benefits across several very practical applications. From preventing fraud and analyzing risks in the investment sector to carrying out complex scientific research by perusing complex data and from automating repetitive mundane tasks to transforming healthcare with its varied abilities, including interpreting data to help identify diseases and assisting in drug development, AI can be of immense service to mankind. AI is still essentially at a very nascent stage and many years away from a time where it is unilaterally and independently able to make major life-and-death decisions of its own volition. That is not to say that it never may, which is why governments, lawmakers, technologists, scientists and philosophers must utilise the time we have to regulate the technology and decide on the ethical framework within which it must be deployed. That the AI age has dawned upon us is a fact, but whether it will turn out to be all pervasive and more is something that we don't yet have the answer to. The Dot Com bubble, for instance, had nearly sunk the Internet revolution until the proponents of the technology proved its usefulness in many other ways. Who knows when the current rash of AI startups pitching a gazillion AI products might go belly up, making people wary of the technology to the extent that they may want to dump it? Alternatively, it may see its ups and downs and finally become the new normal in a much better-regulated and rationalized manner. In any case, we are in for an exciting time ahead.

From the Age of the Internet to the Age of AI

Is it strange to think a robot could operate on you one day? Although the healthcare industry is famous for being a late adopter of the latest technology, it’s quickly picked up robotics. The tech advances as professionals explore it, meaning there are plenty of use cases for machine-assisted remote surgeries. Can robotic surgery be done remotely? The short answer is yes — surgeons can use robots to operate on patients even if they’re not in the same place. Remote surgery — also known as telesurgery — uses wireless networking technology and live imaging to connect them to the operating room, regardless of location. Nearly 40% of people believe these machines can perform surgeries — and they’re right. You’re living in a world where tech has advanced to the point where you don’t have to be in the same room as a doctor to receive care. What technology is used in robotic surgery? While the specific tech surgery robots use depends on the type of operation, most share the same basic features. Many use fifth-generation (5G) wireless networking to establish connections. Operators need a console — an interactive interface — to do anything remotely. Most machines have at least one articulated arm to grasp, cut, or guide the operation. They also use a high-definition, 360-degree camera, and live imaging tech to feed visual information to the operator — how else would surgeons perform remote surgery? Some of the latest versions use haptic feedback tech, enabling them to mimic the operators’ movements on the console. Others use artificial intelligence. Considering a convolution neural network model can identify brain tumors with 97.4% accuracy, it’s a good tool. Examples of robots performing medical operations You might be surprised to find out dozens of surgery robots already exist. The da Vinci robot The da Vinci robot got its name because its creators consider the term “robotic-assisted surgery” misleading, saying people perform operations, not the machines. In this context, the callback to Leonardo da Vinci — the famous artist, engineer and sculptor — makes sense. This machine has performed millions of anastomoses — connecting two parts of a blood vessel — while recording data on how surgeons use their instruments to complete their tasks. This way, it can tell them which techniques and wrist positions improve patient outcomes the most. The spacefaring robot Engineers from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) did what nobody ever has — they sent a surgical robot to the International Space Station. Weighing only two pounds, it’s 1,000 times lighter than any other telerobotic system. Surgeons on Earth will use the robot’s camera and two articulated arms to perform simulated surgery in space. As impressive as this sounds, there’s no telling how it’ll go. Even though the launch was in January 2024, UNL won’t publish results until 2025 at the earliest. The augmented reality robot In 2020, two doctors performed a lifesaving surgery on a person with cancer. It doesn’t sound out of the ordinary until you learn they never touched him — and were thousands of miles apart. The patient was immunocompromised, so telesurgery was the only safe option during COVID. One surgeon stood six feet from the patient, using the machine’s four articulated arms to insert a camera tube into the problem area. Meanwhile, the other sat in their living room in a pajama robe, using an augmented reality pointer to guide the step-by-step operation. The joystick robot Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) engineers developed a telerobotic system for treating victims of strokes. The operator uses a modified joystick and a live video feed to control an articulated arm, adjusting it with magnets to guide a soft, thin magnetic wire through arteries and vessels to remove blood clots that cause strokes. The goal is to treat patients during a brief window of opportunity where treatment can preserve brain function and save lives. The advantages of robotic medical operations Plenty of people live in healthcare deserts — areas where there aren’t enough medical resources, staff, or facilities to go around. Statistically, you’re probably one of them. In the U.S., over 80% of counties are considered healthcare deserts, forcing residents to deal with long waits and high costs. Robotic-assisted surgery could eliminate this problem by bringing medical professionals wherever they’re needed. For example, a neurovascular surgeon could remotely treat a stroke victim in Atlanta from their office in Chicago. There’s no longer a need for travel, either. If you’ve ever visited a specialist, you probably drove out of your way to see them. Some people with chronic illnesses even move to improve their access to care. Now that telesurgery exists, you may just have to visit your local hospital. Another massive benefit involves patient outcomes — these machines are literally saving lives. They reduce hand tremors, enable early intervention, and are highly precise, lowering the risk of infection, blood loss, and complications. Past robotic-assisted surgeries prove medical professionals can provide care without experiencing software glitches or connection delays, meaning this tech is just as safe as being operated on by a robot-less human. Ways robotics can be used for remote surgery There are three main ways you could use robots for remote surgeries. Articulated robots Articulated robots are among the most common in the medical field because they can do most things human hands can — they can insert tubes, make incisions, or administer medication. Operators can use them to carry out tasks remotely, lending their expertise to operations they otherwise would’ve never been a part of. 2. Autonomous robots Although the healthcare industry is wary of adopting fully autonomous robotics, professionals and researchers are testing the tech. The idea is that a human will remotely oversee the operation while the machine carries out its tasks. Collaborative robots Medical professionals often call on their colleagues or well-known individuals in their field for help — even doctors can’t be experts on everything. In these situations, they usually want guidance on where to make incisions or how to perform complex operations. Using collaborative robotics, their assistant can help them regardless of their location. Will robots replace surgeons in the future? It’s highly unlikely these machines will replace surgeons in the future. Although autonomous versions exist, you can probably agree most people won’t be comfortable being operated on by a machine without some level of human involvement. For now, these inventions are purely assistants. Sources: Kaspersky’s The Future of Jobs report Deep Learning for Tumor Classification Intuitive’s Robotic-Assisted Surgery Technology The Smithsonian’s Report on the ISS Robot Wired Report on Robotic-Assisted Surgery MIT’s Report on the Joystick Robot The GoodRX Report on Healthcare Deserts Telesurgey and Robotics: An Improve and Efficient Era Is it strange to think a robot could operate on you one day? Although the healthcare industry is famous for being a late adopter of the latest technology, it’s quickly picked up robotics. The tech advances as professionals explore it, meaning there are plenty of use cases for machine-assisted remote surgeries. Can robotic surgery be done remotely? Can robotic surgery be done remotely? The short answer is yes — surgeons can use robots to operate on patients even if they’re not in the same place. Remote surgery — also known as telesurgery — uses wireless networking technology and live imaging to connect them to the operating room, regardless of location. Nearly 40% of people believe these machines can perform surgeries — and they’re right. You’re living in a world where tech has advanced to the point where you don’t have to be in the same room as a doctor to receive care. Nearly 40% of people Nearly 40% of people What technology is used in robotic surgery? What technology is used in robotic surgery? While the specific tech surgery robots use depends on the type of operation, most share the same basic features. Many use fifth-generation (5G) wireless networking to establish connections. Operators need a console — an interactive interface — to do anything remotely. Most machines have at least one articulated arm to grasp, cut, or guide the operation. They also use a high-definition, 360-degree camera, and live imaging tech to feed visual information to the operator — how else would surgeons perform remote surgery? Some of the latest versions use haptic feedback tech, enabling them to mimic the operators’ movements on the console. Others use artificial intelligence. Considering a convolution neural network model can identify brain tumors with 97.4% accuracy , it’s a good tool. identify brain tumors with 97.4% accuracy identify brain tumors with 97.4% accuracy Examples of robots performing medical operations Examples of robots performing medical operations You might be surprised to find out dozens of surgery robots already exist. The da Vinci robot The da Vinci robot The da Vinci robot got its name because its creators consider the term “robotic-assisted surgery” misleading, saying people perform operations, not the machines. In this context, the callback to Leonardo da Vinci — the famous artist, engineer and sculptor — makes sense. This machine has performed millions of anastomoses — connecting two parts of a blood vessel — while recording data on how surgeons use their instruments to complete their tasks. This way, it can tell them which techniques and wrist positions improve patient outcomes the most. has performed millions of anastomoses has performed millions of anastomoses The spacefaring robot The spacefaring robot Engineers from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) did what nobody ever has — they sent a surgical robot to the International Space Station. Weighing only two pounds, it’s 1,000 times lighter than any other telerobotic system. it’s 1,000 times lighter it’s 1,000 times lighter Surgeons on Earth will use the robot’s camera and two articulated arms to perform simulated surgery in space. As impressive as this sounds, there’s no telling how it’ll go. Even though the launch was in January 2024, UNL won’t publish results until 2025 at the earliest. The augmented reality robot The augmented reality robot In 2020, two doctors performed a lifesaving surgery on a person with cancer. It doesn’t sound out of the ordinary until you learn they never touched him — and were thousands of miles apart. The patient was immunocompromised, so telesurgery was the only safe option during COVID. performed a lifesaving surgery performed a lifesaving surgery One surgeon stood six feet from the patient, using the machine’s four articulated arms to insert a camera tube into the problem area. Meanwhile, the other sat in their living room in a pajama robe, using an augmented reality pointer to guide the step-by-step operation. The joystick robot The joystick robot Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) engineers developed a telerobotic system for treating victims of strokes. The operator uses a modified joystick and a live video feed to control an articulated arm, adjusting it with magnets to guide a soft, thin magnetic wire through arteries and vessels to remove blood clots that cause strokes. The goal is to treat patients during a brief window of opportunity where treatment can preserve brain function and save lives. uses a modified joystick uses a modified joystick The advantages of robotic medical operations The advantages of robotic medical operations Plenty of people live in healthcare deserts — areas where there aren’t enough medical resources, staff, or facilities to go around. Statistically, you’re probably one of them. In the U.S., over 80% of counties are considered healthcare deserts, forcing residents to deal with long waits and high costs. over 80% of counties over 80% of counties Robotic-assisted surgery could eliminate this problem by bringing medical professionals wherever they’re needed. For example, a neurovascular surgeon could remotely treat a stroke victim in Atlanta from their office in Chicago. There’s no longer a need for travel, either. If you’ve ever visited a specialist, you probably drove out of your way to see them. Some people with chronic illnesses even move to improve their access to care. Now that telesurgery exists, you may just have to visit your local hospital. Another massive benefit involves patient outcomes — these machines are literally saving lives. They reduce hand tremors, enable early intervention, and are highly precise, lowering the risk of infection, blood loss, and complications. Past robotic-assisted surgeries prove medical professionals can provide care without experiencing software glitches or connection delays, meaning this tech is just as safe as being operated on by a robot-less human. without experiencing software glitches without experiencing software glitches Ways robotics can be used for remote surgery Ways robotics can be used for remote surgery There are three main ways you could use robots for remote surgeries. Articulated robots Articulated robots Articulated robots Articulated robots are among the most common in the medical field because they can do most things human hands can — they can insert tubes, make incisions, or administer medication. Operators can use them to carry out tasks remotely, lending their expertise to operations they otherwise would’ve never been a part of. 2. Autonomous robots 2. Autonomous robots Although the healthcare industry is wary of adopting fully autonomous robotics, professionals and researchers are testing the tech. The idea is that a human will remotely oversee the operation while the machine carries out its tasks. Collaborative robots Collaborative robots Collaborative robots Medical professionals often call on their colleagues or well-known individuals in their field for help — even doctors can’t be experts on everything. In these situations, they usually want guidance on where to make incisions or how to perform complex operations. Using collaborative robotics, their assistant can help them regardless of their location. Will robots replace surgeons in the future? Will robots replace surgeons in the future? It’s highly unlikely these machines will replace surgeons in the future. Although autonomous versions exist, you can probably agree most people won’t be comfortable being operated on by a machine without some level of human involvement. For now, these inventions are purely assistants. Sources: Kaspersky’s The Future of Jobs report Kaspersky’s The Future of Jobs report Kaspersky’s The Future of Jobs report Deep Learning for Tumor Classification Deep Learning for Tumor Classification Deep Learning for Tumor Classification Intuitive’s Robotic-Assisted Surgery Technology Intuitive’s Robotic-Assisted Surgery Technology Intuitive’s Robotic-Assisted Surgery Technology The Smithsonian’s Report on the ISS Robot The Smithsonian’s Report on the ISS Robot The Smithsonian’s Report on the ISS Robot Wired Report on Robotic-Assisted Surgery Wired Report on Robotic-Assisted Surgery Wired Report on Robotic-Assisted Surgery MIT’s Report on the Joystick Robot MIT’s Report on the Joystick Robot MIT’s Report on the Joystick Robot The GoodRX Report on Healthcare Deserts The GoodRX Report on Healthcare Deserts The GoodRX Report on Healthcare Deserts Telesurgey and Robotics: An Improve and Efficient Era Telesurgey and Robotics: An Improve and Efficient Era Telesurgey and Robotics: An Improve and Efficient Era

How Can Robotics Be Implemented for Remote Surgery?

Hello, I’m Malena Carollo, and I’m an investigative reporter here at The Markup. I write stories about broken systems that deeply affect people’s lives. In March, we published a two-part investigation into the algorithm that determines who gets a life-saving liver transplant. The algorithm was changed three years ago to allow donated livers to travel farther than ever before. Proponents said the change was meant to get the sickest patients a liver no matter where they lived. But those making the new policy dismissed surgeons, advocates, and academics around the country who worried that it would hurt rural areas and the poor while causing more livers to be wasted. My reporting partner Ben Tanen and I found these concerns were valid: the change entrenched long-standing inequities, taking livers away from areas that already struggle with access to health care and sending them to some states that do a poor job of collecting donated organs locally. We also found that the change didn’t happen organically: it was engineered by those whose states would benefit from it. Since our story was published, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) said it would break up the contract that has given one contractor a nearly four-decade hold on the transplant system. And as of this week, Congress is now considering two reform bills to advance this effort. Here’s what you need to know: 1.  The policy produced clear winners and losers Seven states and Puerto Rico lost transplants under the policy. All but one of these losing states were in the South and Midwest. Two—Alabama and Kansas—each have just one hospital within their borders where adults can get a liver transplant. Alabama saw a 44 percent drop in transplants under the policy, while Kansas dropped by 38 percent. The number of losing states is even larger when you look at how many transplants each did compared to how many organs were donated there: 19 states and Puerto Rico saw a decline in transplants as a percentage of donations. Those behind the change said their goal was to save more lives, not to create disparities. But the negatively affected states have lower rates of insured people, fewer transplant hospitals per square mile, and lower median household incomes than those that benefited from the change. The top beneficiary of the shift? New York, which has one of the lowest rates of end-stage liver disease in the country. California also significantly benefited from the change. 2. One in 10 donated livers were discarded during the policy In 2021, the policy change coincided with the highest number of livers discarded in nearly a decade—949. Experts said increased travel time contributed to this. When a donated liver gets matched to someone waiting for a transplant, the recipient’s surgeon may still reject it—maybe there was an unforeseen issue, or perhaps they got a better liver from elsewhere. The rejected liver would go to the next matching patient. But because of how widely livers are now shared, the next person may be quite far away, requiring more travel. And while the liver is traveling, it is also deteriorating: they can only be outside the body for about 12 hours. The issue of discarded organs is particularly important when it comes to livers because a transplant is the only treatment option for end-stage liver disease; there is no dialysis for livers. 3. Nonprofits in charge of the nation’s organ supply are failing—and so are their regulators Battles over who gets a donated liver are a symptom of a much larger problem: there aren’t enough organs to go around. The federal government contracts 56 nonprofits to convince families to donate their dying loved ones’ organs. They are overwhelmingly underperforming at their jobs: 42 percent of all “organ procurement organizations” were in the lowest performance tier in the annual rankings released earlier this month. What those rankings don’t capture are the vast differences in how these organizations perform their crucial work. No regulator looks at how they do their jobs, despite two of the regulators collecting data that would allow them to do so. The significant differences in how each organization performs their duties directly affect how many organs are recovered. 4. Private interests orchestrated the nationwide change The differences in how organ procurement organizations operate contributed to the liver policy change. A lawsuit from six patients in New York, California, and Massachusetts demanded that livers be shared more broadly, and insiders overseeing the nation’s transplant system used this lawsuit to push forth the policy change after other pressure tactics didn’t work. We found that two of the worst-performing organ procurement organizations in the country and a New York hospital trade association formed a lobbying group that recruited the patients who filed the lawsuit, while the trade group bankrolled it. Hospitals in New York were long frustrated with their local organ procurement organization’s performance. The new policy brought many more livers to their areas without having to collect more locally. The New York organ procurement organization, LiveOnNY, was so poor at its job that its federal contract was nearly pulled twice. You can read the audit The Markup obtained outlining LiveOnNY’s widespread deficiencies here. And here’s how those groups and insiders forced the policy change. 5. The federal government wants the national transplant system to change At the helm of the country’s transplant system is the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS). It and the organ procurement organizations are the subject of multiple congressional investigations into their performance. The day after we published our investigation, HHS announced a plan to break up UNOS’ longstanding hold on the transplant system, slicing off different portions of the work into separate contracts. Two bills, one in the House and one in the Senate, have since been filed that would give HHS the support to do so. There are scant details available about how exactly the contract would actually be broken up, however. And even if policymaking work were taken from UNOS, there is no guarantee that the liver policy would be revised. Thanks for reading our work, and always feel free to reach me with tips or feedback at malena@themarkup.org or 813-591-0688. Best, Malena Carollo Investigative Reporter The Markup P.S. Markup reporters Aaron Sankin and Leon Yin recently published a guide to investigating the digital divide. If you’d like to learn how to use it, join them for a demo this Tuesday, May 23, at 2:00 p.m. ET. Just sign up at mrkup.org/byod-rsvp. By Malena Carollo Photo by JAFAR AHMED on Unsplash Hello, I’m Malena Carollo, and I’m an investigative reporter here at The Markup. I write stories about broken systems that deeply affect people’s lives. In March, we published a two-part investigation into the algorithm that determines who gets a life-saving liver transplant. investigation The algorithm was changed three years ago to allow donated livers to travel farther than ever before. Proponents said the change was meant to get the sickest patients a liver no matter where they lived. But those making the new policy dismissed surgeons, advocates, and academics around the country who worried that it would hurt rural areas and the poor while causing more livers to be wasted. My reporting partner Ben Tanen and I found these concerns were valid: the change entrenched long-standing inequities, taking livers away from areas that already struggle with access to health care and sending them to some states that do a poor job of collecting donated organs locally. We also found that the change didn’t happen organically: it was engineered by those whose states would benefit from it. was engineered Since our story was published, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) said it would break up the contract that has given one contractor a nearly four-decade hold on the transplant system. And as of this week, Congress is now considering two reform bills to advance this effort. Here’s what you need to know: 1.  The policy produced clear winners and losers Seven states and Puerto Rico lost transplants under the policy . All but one of these losing states were in the South and Midwest. Two—Alabama and Kansas—each have just one hospital within their borders where adults can get a liver transplant. Alabama saw a 44 percent drop in transplants under the policy, while Kansas dropped by 38 percent. The number of losing states is even larger when you look at how many transplants each did compared to how many organs were donated there: 19 states and Puerto Rico saw a decline in transplants as a percentage of donations. Seven states and Puerto Rico lost transplants under the policy Those behind the change said their goal was to save more lives, not to create disparities. But the negatively affected states have lower rates of insured people, fewer transplant hospitals per square mile, and lower median household incomes than those that benefited from the change. The top beneficiary of the shift? New York, which has one of the lowest rates of end-stage liver disease in the country. California also significantly benefited from the change. 2. One in 10 donated livers were discarded during the policy In 2021, the policy change coincided with the highest number of livers discarded in nearly a decade—949. Experts said increased travel time contributed to this. When a donated liver gets matched to someone waiting for a transplant, the recipient’s surgeon may still reject it—maybe there was an unforeseen issue, or perhaps they got a better liver from elsewhere. The rejected liver would go to the next matching patient. But because of how widely livers are now shared, the next person may be quite far away, requiring more travel. And while the liver is traveling, it is also deteriorating: they can only be outside the body for about 12 hours. The issue of discarded organs is particularly important when it comes to livers because a transplant is the only treatment option for end-stage liver disease; there is no dialysis for livers. 3. Nonprofits in charge of the nation’s organ supply are failing—and so are their regulators Battles over who gets a donated liver are a symptom of a much larger problem: there aren’t enough organs to go around. The federal government contracts 56 nonprofits to convince families to donate their dying loved ones’ organs. They are overwhelmingly underperforming at their jobs: 42 percent of all “organ procurement organizations” were in the lowest performance tier in the annual rankings released earlier this month. What those rankings don’t capture are the vast differences in how these organizations perform their crucial work . No regulator looks at how they do their jobs, despite two of the regulators collecting data that would allow them to do so. The significant differences in how each organization performs their duties directly affect how many organs are recovered. vast differences in how these organizations perform their crucial work 4. Private interests orchestrated the nationwide change The differences in how organ procurement organizations operate contributed to the liver policy change. A lawsuit from six patients in New York, California, and Massachusetts demanded that livers be shared more broadly, and insiders overseeing the nation’s transplant system used this lawsuit to push forth the policy change after other pressure tactics didn’t work. We found that two of the worst-performing organ procurement organizations in the country and a New York hospital trade association formed a lobbying group that recruited the patients who filed the lawsuit, while the trade group bankrolled it. Hospitals in New York were long frustrated with their local organ procurement organization’s performance. The new policy brought many more livers to their areas without having to collect more locally. The New York organ procurement organization, LiveOnNY, was so poor at its job that its federal contract was nearly pulled twice . You can read the audit The Markup obtained outlining LiveOnNY’s widespread deficiencies here . And here’s how those groups and insiders forced the policy change . federal contract was nearly pulled twice outlining LiveOnNY’s widespread deficiencies here here’s how those groups and insiders forced the policy change 5. The federal government wants the national transplant system to change At the helm of the country’s transplant system is the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS). It and the organ procurement organizations are the subject of multiple congressional investigations into their performance. The day after we published our investigation, HHS announced a plan to break up UNOS’ longstanding hold on the transplant system , slicing off different portions of the work into separate contracts. Two bills, one in the House and one in the Senate , have since been filed that would give HHS the support to do so. announced a plan to break up UNOS’ longstanding hold on the transplant system House Senate There are scant details available about how exactly the contract would actually be broken up, however. And even if policymaking work were taken from UNOS, there is no guarantee that the liver policy would be revised. Thanks for reading our work, and always feel free to reach me with tips or feedback at malena@themarkup.org or 813-591-0688. malena@themarkup.org Best, Malena Carollo Investigative Reporter The Markup P.S. Markup reporters Aaron Sankin and Leon Yin recently published a guide to investigating the digital divide . If you’d like to learn how to use it, join them for a demo this Tuesday, May 23, at 2:00 p.m. ET. Just sign up at mrkup.org/byod-rsvp . a guide to investigating the digital divide mrkup.org/byod-rsvp By Malena Carollo By Malena Carollo Malena Carollo Photo by JAFAR AHMED on Unsplash Photo by JAFAR AHMED on Unsplash JAFAR AHMED Unsplash

Meet the Algorithm That Decides Who Gets a Liver Transplant: 5 Things to Know

অ্যালগরিদমের সাথে দেখা করুন যা নির্ধারণ করে কে লিভার ট্রান্সপ্লান্ট করবে: 5টি জিনিস জানতে হবে

Lernen Sie den Algorithmus kennen, der entscheidet, wer eine Lebertransplantation erhält: 5 Dinge, die Sie wissen sollten

Conozca el algoritmo que decide quién recibe un trasplante de hígado: 5 cosas que debe saber

Découvrez l'algorithme qui décide qui recevra une greffe du foie : 5 choses à savoir

उस एल्गोरिदम से मिलें जो तय करता है कि किसे लिवर ट्रांसप्लांट करवाना है: जानने योग्य 5 बातें

誰が肝臓移植を受けるかを決定するアルゴリズム: 知っておくべき 5 つのこと

간 이식을 받을 사람을 결정하는 알고리즘을 만나보세요: 알아야 할 5가지

Conheça o algoritmo que decide quem fará o transplante de fígado: 5 coisas para saber

Познакомьтесь с алгоритмом, который решает, кому будет произведена трансплантация печени: 5 вещей, которые нужно знать

Kimin Karaciğer Nakli Yapacağına Karar Veren Algoritmayla Tanışın: Bilinmesi Gereken 5 Şey

Gặp gỡ thuật toán quyết định ai được ghép gan: 5 điều cần biết

了解决定谁能接受肝移植的算法：您需要了解的 5 件事

A Deeper Dive Into Log Enrichment

লগ সমৃদ্ধকরণে একটি গভীর ডুব

Ein tieferer Einblick in die Protokollanreicherung

Una inmersión más profunda en el enriquecimiento de registros

Une plongée plus approfondie dans l'enrichissement des journaux

लॉग संवर्धन में एक गहरा गोता

ログの強化についての詳細

로그 강화에 대한 심층 분석

Um mergulho mais profundo no enriquecimento de toras

Более глубокое погружение в обогащение журналов

Günlük Zenginleştirmeye Daha Derin Bir Bakış

Đi sâu hơn vào việc làm giàu nhật ký

深入研究日志丰富

Scientific American Supplement, No. 365, December 30, 1882 by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . OUR ORIGIN AS A SPECIES. here OUR ORIGIN AS A SPECIES. By Richard Owen, C.B., F.R.S. There seems to be a manifest desire in some quarters to anticipate the looked for and, by some, hoped-for proofs of our descent, or rather ascent, from the ape. In the September issue of the a writer cites, in this relation, the "Neanderthal skull, which possesses large bosses on the forehead, strikingly suggestive of those which give the gorilla its peculiarly fierce appearance;" and he proceeds: "No other human skull presents so utterly bestial a type as the Neanderthal fragment. If one cuts a female gorilla-skull in the same fashion, the resemblance is truly astonishing, and we may say that the only human feature in the skull is its size.” Fortnightly Review In testing the question as between Linnæus and Cuvier of the zoological value of the differences between lowest man and highest ape, a naturalist would not limit his comparison of a portion of the human skull with the corresponding one of a female ape, but would extend it to the young or immature gorilla, and also to the adult male; he would then find the generic and specific characters summed up, so far, at least, as a portion or "fragment" of the skull might show them. What is posed as the "Neanderthal skull" is the roof of the brain-case, or "calvarium" of the anatomist, including the pent-house overhanging the eye-holes or "orbits." There is no other part of the fragment which can be supposed to be meant by the "large bosses" of the above quotation. And, on this assumption, I have to state that the super-orbital ridge in the calvarium in question is but little more prominent than in certain human skulls of both higher and lower races, and of both the existing and cave-dwelling periods. It is a variable cranial character, by no means indicative of race, but rather of sex. Limiting the comparison to that on which the writer quoted bases his conclusions—apparently the superficial extent of the roof plate—its greater extent as compared with that of a gorilla equaling, probably, in weight the entire frame of the individual from the Neanderthal cave, is strongly significant of the superiority of size of brain in the cave-dweller. The inner surface moreover indicates the more complex character of the soft organ on which it was moulded; the precious "gray substance" being multiplied by certain convolutions which are absent in the apes. But there is another surface which the unbiased zoologist finds it requisite to compare. In the human "calvarium" in question, the mid-line traced backward from the super-orbital ridge runs along a smooth track. In the gorilla a ridge is raised from along the major part of that tract to increase the surface giving attachment to the biting muscles. Such ridge in this position varies only in height in the female and the male adult ape, as the specimens in the British Museum demonstrate. In the Neanderthal individual, as in the rest of mankind, the corresponding muscles do not extend their origins to the upper surface of the cranium, but stop short at the sides forming the inner wall or boundary of what are called the "temples," defined by Johnson as the "upper part of the sides of the head," whence our "biting muscles" are called "temporal," as the side-bones of the skull to which they are attached are also the "temporal bones." In the superficial comparison to which Mr. Grant Allen has restricted himself in bearing testimony on a question which perhaps affects our fellow-creatures, in the right sense of the term, more warmly than any other in human and comparative anatomy, the obvious difference just pointed out ought not to have been passed over. It was the more incumbent on one pronouncing on the paramount problem, because the "sagittal ridge in the gorilla," as in the orang, relates to and signifies the dental character which differentiates all from all that have ever come under the ken of the biologist. And this ridge much more "strikingly suggests" the fierceness of the powerful brute-ape than the part referred to as "large bosses." Frontal prominences, more truly so termed, are even better developed in peaceful, timid, graminivorous quadrupeds than in the skulls of man or of ape. But before noticing the evidence which the teeth bear on the physical relations of man to brute, I would premise that the comparison must not be limited to a part or "fragment" of the bony frame, but to its totality, as relating to the modes and faculties of locomotion. Quadrumana Bimana Beginning with the skull—and, indeed, for present aim, limiting myself thereto—I have found that a vertical longitudinal section brings to light in greatest number and of truest value the differential characters between lowest and highest . Those truly and indifferently interested in the question may not think it unworthy their time—if it has not already been so bestowed—to give attention to the detailed discussions and illustrations of the characters in question in the second and third volumes of the "Transactions of the Zoological Society." The concluding memoir, relating more especially to points of approximation in cranial and denial structure of the highest to the lowest , has been separately published. Homo Simia Quadrumane Bimane I selected from the large and instructive series of human skulls of various races in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons that which was the lowest, and might be called most bestial, in its cranial and dental characters. It was from an adult of that human family of which the life-characters are chiefly but truly and suggestively defined in the narrative of Cook's first voyage in the Endeavor. Not to trespass further on the patience of my readers, I may refer to the "Memoir on the Gorilla," 4to, 1865. Plate xii. gives a view, natural size, of the vertical and longitudinal section of an Australian skull; plate xi. gives a similar view of the skull of the gorilla. Reduced copies of these views may be found at p. 572, figs. 395, 396, vol. ii, of my "Anatomy of Vertebrates." As far as my experience has reached, there is no skull displaying the characters of a quadrumanous species, as that series descends from the gorilla and chimpanzee to the baboon, which exhibits differences, osteal or dental, on which specific and generic distinctions are founded, so great, so marked, as are to be seen, and have been above illustrated, in the comparison of the highest ape with the lowest man. The modification of man's upper limbs for the endless variety, nicety, and perfection of their application, in fulfillment of the behests of his correspondingly developed brain—actions summed up in the term "manipulation"—testify as strongly to the same conclusion. The corresponding degree of modification of the human lower limbs, to which he owes his upright attitude, relieving the manual instruments from all share in station and terrestrial locomotion—combine and concur in raising the group so characterized above and beyond the apes, to, at least, ordinal distinction. The dental characters of mankind bear like testimony. The lowest (Melanian), like the highest (Caucasian), variety of the bimanal order differs from the quadrumanal one in the order of appearance, and succession to the first set of teeth, of the second or "permanent" set. The foremost incisor and foremost molar are the earliest to appear in that scries; the intermediate teeth are acquired sooner than those behind the foremost molar. In the gorilla and chimpanzee, the rate or course of progress is reversed; the second true molar, or the one behind the first, makes its appearance before the bicuspid molars rise in front of the first; and the third or last of the molars behind the first comes into place before the canine tooth has risen. This tooth, indeed, which occupies part of the interval between the foremost incisor and foremost molar, is the last of the permanent set of teeth to be fully developed in the ; especially in those which, in their order, rank next to the . To this differential character add the breaks in the dental series necessitated for the reception of the crowns of the huge canines when the gorilla or chimpanzee shuts its mouth. Quadrumana Bimana But the superior value of developmental over adult anatomical characters in such questions as the present is too well known in the actual phase of biology to need comment. In the article on "Primeval Man," the author states that the Cave-men "probably had lower foreheads, with high bosses like the Neanderthal skull, and big canine teeth like the Naulette jaw." The human lower jaw so defined, from a Belgian cave, which I have carefully examined, gives no evidence of a canine tooth of a size indicative of one in the upper jaw necessitating such vacancy in the lower series of teeth which the apes present. There is no such vacancy nor any evidence of a "big canine tooth" in that cave specimen. And, with respect to cave specimens in general, the zoological characters of the race of men they represent must be founded on the rule, not on an exception, to their cranial features. Those which I obtained from the cavern at Bruniquel, and which are now exhibited in the Museum of Natural History, were disinterred under circumstances more satisfactorily determining their contemporaneity with the extinct quadrupeds those cave-men killed and devoured than in any other spelæan retreat which I have explored. They show neither "lower foreheads" nor "higher bosses" than do the skulls of existing races of mankind. Present evidence concurs in concluding that the modes of life and grades of thought of the men who have left evidences of their existence at the earliest periods hitherto discovered and determined, were such as are now observable in "savages," or the human races which are commonly so called. The industry and pains now devoted to the determination of the physical characters of such races, to their ways of living, their tools and weapons, and to the relations of their dermal, osteal, and dental modifications to those of the mammals which follow next after in the descensive series of mammalian orders, are exemplary. Bimana The present phase of the quest may be far from the bourn to yield hereafter trustworthy evidence of the origin of man; but, meanwhile, exaggerations and misstatements of acquired grounds ought especially to be avoided. Grant Allen, "On Primitive Man," p. 314. "Oseteological Contributions to the Natural History of the Orangs ( ) and Chimpanzees ( and )." Pithecus Troglodites niger Trog. gorilla Hawkesworth's 4th ed., vol. iii., 1770, pp. 86, 137, 229. The skull in question is No 5,394 of the "Catalogue of the Osteology" in the above Museum, 4to, vol. ii, p. 823, 1853. "Odontography," 4to, 1840-44, p. 454, plates 117, 118, 119. , September, p. 321. Fortnightly Review About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2006). Scientific American Supplement, No. 365, December 30, 1882. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/18763/pg18763-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

OUR ORIGIN AS A SPECIES

Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX. No. 6. [New Series.], August 10, 1878, by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . THE DISTILLATION OF COAL. here THE DISTILLATION OF COAL. Bituminous coal, of which there are several varieties, is the best suited for the production of coal gas. The Newcastle coal is principally used in the manufacture of London gas. Scotch parrot coal produces a superior gas, but the coke produced is of inferior quality. Boghead coal is also used for gas making—in fact, every kind of coal, except anthracite, may be used for this purpose. The bituminous shale produces a very good gas, and it is used partly to supply the place of cannel or parrot coal. As carbon and hydrogen, principally with oxygen, are the elements from which gas is formed, most substances containing these elements can be partially converted into gas. And gas has been made from grease or kitchen waste, oil peat, rosin, and wood, besides coal. A ton of Newcastle or caking coal yields about 9,000 cubic feet of gas, Scotch coal about 11,000, English cannel about 10,000, and shale about 7,000, with illuminating powers in the ratio of about 13, 25, 22, and 36 respectively. The coal is put in retorts, , commonly made of fire clay and often of cast iron. These retorts are from 6 feet to 9 feet long, and from 1 foot to 1 foot 8 inches in breadth. They are made like the letter D, elliptical, cylindrical, or bean shaped. They are built into an arched oven, and heated by furnaces, , beneath. One, three, five, seven, or more are built in the same oven. The mouthpieces are of cast iron, and project outward from the oven, so as to allow ascension pipes, , to be fixed, to convey the gas generated from the coal to the hydraulic main, . After the coal has been introduced into the retorts, their mouths are closed with lids luted round the edges with clay, and kept tight by a screw. The retorts are kept at a bright red heat. If the temperature be too low, less gas and more tar are produced, less residue being left; while, should the temperature be too high, the product is more volatile, more residue remaining. And should the gas remain for any length of time in contact with the highly heated retort, it is partially decomposed, carbon being deposited, thereby lessening the illuminating power, and choking up the retort, and more carbon disulphide is produced at a high temperature. The object is to maintain a medium temperature, in order to obtain a better gas having the greatest illuminating power. In about four or five hours the coal in the retort will have given off all its gas. The mouth of the retort is opened, and the coke is raked out into large iron vessels, and extinguished by water. A fresh charge is immediately introduced by means of a long scoop in the cherry-red retort, and the door luted to. The ascension pipes, which convey the gas from the retorts, pass straight up for a few feet, then turn round, forming an arch, then pass downward into the hydraulic main, beneath the level of the liquid contained in it, and bubble up through the liquid into the upper portion of the main. On commencing the main is half filled with water, but after working some time, this water is displaced by the fluid products of distillation. In this way, the opening into each retort is closed, so that a charge can be withdrawn and replaced without interfering with the action of the other retorts and pipes. The liquid tar, ammoniacal water, and gas pass from the end, , of the hydraulic main, down through the pipe, P, and the liquid falls down into the tar well, T W, while the crude gas goes on into the chest, C, partially filled with the liquid, so that the plates, , from the top dip into it to within a few inches of the bottom. These dip plates are placed in the chest, so as to separate the openings into each pair of condensing pipes, , so that the gas passing into the chest finds no exit except up 1, and down 2; and there being no dip plate between 2 and 3 it passes up 3, and down 4, and as there is no dip plate to prevent its progress, it passes up 5, and down 6, into the lime or iron purifiers, L I. The condensers are kept cool by exposure to the atmosphere, and are often cooled by a stream of water from a tank above. The gas cools quickly, and liquids passing along with the gas in a state of vapor are condensed and fall into the chest, and pass by an overflow pipe into the tar well. The purifier is a cast iron vessel, L I, containing a number of perforated shelves, 1 1 1, on which slaked lime, to the depth of about 4 inches, or much greater thickness of iron oxide and sawdust, is placed. The gas passes up through the shelves, , and down through the shelves, 1 1 1, through the pipe, G, into the gas holder, and from thence through the pipe, M, to the main pipe. The lime abstracts carbonic anhydride, sulphureted hydrogen, cyanogen, naphthalin, and a portion of the ammonia, but not carbon disulphide, which latter may be absorbed by passing the gas through a solution of sodic hydrate and plumbic oxide, mixed with sawdust. Gas containing CS2, on burning, produces H2SO4, which injures books and furniture in rooms. However, the quantity of CS2 in gas is generally so minute as to be practically uninjurious. By a proper regulation of the temperature during distillation, the quantity produced is infinitesimal. When the lime is saturated it is removed, and fresh supplied; but the iron, after use, can be reconverted into oxide by exposure to the atmosphere, and used repeatedly. When iron is used a separate lime purifier is necessary to remove carbonic anhydride. The last traces of ammonia are removed before passing to the gas holder, by passing the gas through dilute sulphuric acid, or up through the interior of a tower having perforated shelves covered with coke in small pieces, through which a constant supply of fresh water percolates. This washing removes some of the more condensable hydrocarbons, and lessens the illuminating power of the gas. Before the gas passes from the condensers into the purifiers, it passes through a kind of pump, termed an exhauster, driven by steam power. This action relieves the retorts from the pressure of the gas passing through the hydraulic main, etc. It diminishes the deposit of graphite in the retorts, and lessens leakage in them, should there be any flaws. It also has the beneficial effect of producing a gas of a higher illuminating power, since the relief of pressure in the retorts produces a more favorable condition of combustion. r f a p h m e p p c c c c c c c c c c s s s s s s s s s The following are some of the bodies produced in the manufacture of gas, namely, acetylene, , the carbonate, , chloride, , cyanide, , sulphide, , and sulphate, , of ammonium; aniline, , anthracene, , benzine, , carbonic oxide, , carbonic anhydride, , carbonic disulphide, , chrysene, , cumene, , cymene, , ethylene, , hydrogen, , leucoline, , methyl-hydride, , naphthaline, , nitrogen, , paraffine, , phenylic alcohol, , picoline, , propene, , quartene, , sulphureted hydrogen, , toluene, , water, , xylene, , etc. g s s s s s t s l g g l s l l g g l g s g s l l g g g l l l The most of the above solid and liquid substances, with the letters and written after, are removed by cooling the gas in the condensers, and the gaseous substances marked , that are injurious in the consumption of the gas, are removed by purification. The impurities in the gas may consist of ammonic carbonate and sulphide, carbonic anhydride and disulphide, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphureted hydrogen, and water in the form of vapor; and acetylene, ethylene, and the vapors of the acetylene, ethylene, and phenylene series of hydrocarbons are the illuminating ingredients diluted with carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and methyl-hydride. The approximate percentage composition of coal gas is: H, 45.6; Me, 34.8; CO, 6.5; C2H4, 4; CO2, 3.6; N, 2.4; C4H8, 2.3; SH2, 0.3, etc.— s l g Hugh Clements in English Mechanic. A Short History of Petroleum. The gives the following short history of petroleum: The production of petroleum as an article of trade dates from the 28th of August, 1859, when Colonel Drake, in a well 69-1/2 feet deep, "struck oil," and coined a phrase that will last as long as the English language. From that beginning it has increased to an annual production of 14,500,000 barrels of crude oil. The first export was in 1861, of 27,000 barrels, valued at $1,000,000, and the export of petroleum in the year 1877 was, in round numbers, $62,000,000. The annual product of petroleum to-day—crude and refined—is greater in value than the entire production of iron, and is more than double that of the anthracite coal of the State of Pennsylvania, and exceeds the gold and silver product of the whole country. As an article of export it is fourth, and contests closely for the third rank. Our leading exports are relatively as follows: Cotton annually from $175,000,000 to $227,000,000; flour from $69,000,000 to $130,000,000; pork and its products (bacon, ham and lard) from $57,000,000 to $82,000,000; and petroleum from $48,000,000 to $62,000,000. The total export of petroleum from 1861 to and including 1877 (16 years) has been $442,698,968, custom house valuation. From the best sources of information there are at this time 10,000 oil wells, producing and drilling, which, at a cost of $5,000 per well, would make an investment of $50,000,000 in this branch of the business. Tankage now existing of a capacity of 6,000,000 barrels cost $2,000,000, and $7,000,000 has been invested in about 2,000 miles of pipe lines connected with the wells. The entire investment for the existing oil production, including purchase money of territory, is something over $100,000,000, which amount cannot be lessened much, if any, for as wells cease to produce new ones have been constantly drilled to take their place. Lumberman's Gazette Minute Forms of Life. The Rev. W. H. Dallinger lately delivered a lecture at the Royal Institution, descriptive of the recent researches of Dr. Drysdale and himself. The object of the lecture was mainly to explain the method of research which had been employed. The first essays of the opticians to produce "high powers" were, as might be expected, feeble. These powers amplified, but did not analyze; hence it began to be questioned whether "one could see more really with a high power than with a moderate one." And this was true at the time. But it is not so now. The optician has risen to the emergency, and provided us with powers of great magnifying capacity which carry an equivalent capacity for analysis. They open up structure in a wonderful way when rightly used. The lecturer began by projecting upon the screen the magnified image of a wasp's sting—an object about the 1-20th of an inch in natural size—and beside it was placed a piece of the point of a cambric sewing needle of the same length, magnified to the same extent. The details of the sting were very delicate and refined, but the minute needle point became riven and torn and blunt under the powerful analysis of the lens, showing what the lecturer meant by "magnifying power;" not mere enlargement, but the bringing out of details infinitely beyond us save through the well made lens. This was further illustrated by means of the delicate structure of the , and still further by means of a rarely delicate valve of the diatom known as . With a magnification of 600 diameters no structure of any kind was visible; but by gradually using 1,200, 1,800, and 2,400 diameters, it was made manifest how the ultimate structure of this organic atom displayed itself. Radiolaria N. rhomboides But this power of analysis was carried still further by means of the minutest known organic form, . The lecturer had, in connection with Dr. Drysdale, discovered that the movements of this marvelously minute living thing were effected by means of a pair of fine fibers or "flagella." These were so delicate as to be invisible to everything but the most powerful and specially constructed lenses and the most delicate retinas. But since this discovery, Dr. Koch, of Germany, had actually photographed the flagella of much larger bacteria, such as , and expressed his conviction that the whole group was flagellate. Mr. Dallinger determined then to try to measure the diameter of this minute of that the real power of magnification in our present lenses might be tested. This was a most difficult task, but 200 measurements were made with four different lenses, and the results were for the mean of the first 50 measurements 0·00000489208; for the second, 0·00000488673; for the third, 0·00000488024; for the fourth, 0·00000488200, giving a mean value for the whole, expressed in vulgar fractions, of the 1/204700 of an inch as the diameter of the flagellum of . Bacterium termo Bacillus subtilis flagellum B. termo B. termo With such power of analysis it was manifest that immense results might be expected from a good use of the "highest powers." The proper method of using them was next dwelt on, and then the apparatus was described, by means of which a drop of fluid containing any organism that was being studied might be prevented from evaporating while under the scrutiny of the most powerful lenses, and for an indefinite length of time. The importance of studying such organisms in this way—by continuous observation—was then plainly shown, some of the peculiar inferences of Dr. Bastian, as to the transmutation of bacteria into monads, and monads into amœbæ, etc., being explained by discontinuity of observation. Wages in England. Consul General Badeau reports that during the past five years wages have increased gradually about 10 per cent, while the cost of living has increased about 25 per cent. Clothing is about 30 per cent higher, while fuel has not risen in price. Agricultural laborers get from $2 to $3 per week, including beer; building laborers and gardeners from $4.40 to $5.10 per week; bricklayers, carpenters, masons, and engineers from $6.80 to $11 per week; cabinetmakers, printers, and jewelers from $8 to $12.30 per week, although the best marble masons and jewelers receive $14.75. Bootmakers and tailors get from $4.86 to $7.65 per week, and bakers from $4.65 to $7.25, with partial board. Women servants are paid from $70 to $240 per annum. Railway porters and laborers on public works get from $4.45 to $12 per week. Rents have risen some 30 per cent, and are, for artisans in London, from $1.20 to $2.40 per week for one or two rooms. The Treatment of Cancer by Pressure. M. Bouchut has recently introduced to the notice of the members of the Académie des Sciences a cuirasse of vulcanized caoutchouc, which he has used with success for the treatment of cancerous and other tumors of the breast. In this country there has been much division of opinion upon the utility of pressure in the treatment of cancer, some surgeons regarding it as harmful, or but rarely useful, others attributing to it great retardation of the rapidity of growth of the tumor, or even cure. The surgeons of Middlesex Hospital studied it systematically some years ago, and gave an unfavorable report. The theory of the plan is certainly good: a neoplasia, like a healthy tissue, is dependent upon its blood supply for vitality and growth, and complete anæmia causes the death of a tumor, as it does of a patch of brain substance. It will be remembered that Mr. Haward last year related at the Clinical Society a case in point. He ligatured the left lingual artery for a recurrent epithelioma of the tongue; the tumor sloughed away, and a fortnight before the patient's death from blood poisoning the tongue was quite healed. In just the same way ischæmia will impair the vitality and so lessen the growth of a tumor. The difficulty is rather in the practical application of this theory. The knowledge that we now possess of the mode of growth of cancers gives us at least one important indication. If we have to deal with a neoplasia that grows at the periphery by gradual infiltration of the surrounding tissues, it is plain that, for pressure to be useful, it must be applied around the tumor rather than over it, where, by compressing and obstructing the capillaries, it would cause overfullness of those at the circumference. It is the periphery of a cancer that is its active part, and we must, therefore, produce ischæmia around and not in the tumor. In the application of the treatment this must be obtained by the careful adjustment of elastic pads or cotton wool, and as the whole success of the plan depends upon the skill with which this is done, too much attention cannot be given to it. We cannot regard pressure as a substitute for removal of a cancer; but in the frequent cases where this is impracticable it appears to be the best substitute at present open to the surgeon. M. Bouchut's cuirasse would seem to be an improvement upon the spring pads and other appliances in use in this country.— Lancet. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2013). Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX. No. 6. [New Series.], August 10, 1878. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/19406/pg19406-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

THE DISTILLATION OF COAL

How the Liver Transplant System Changed Forever

কিভাবে লিভার ট্রান্সপ্লান্ট সিস্টেম চিরতরে পরিবর্তিত হয়েছে

Wie sich das Lebertransplantationssystem für immer veränderte

Cómo cambió para siempre el sistema de trasplante de hígado

Comment le système de transplantation hépatique a changé pour toujours

लिवर ट्रांसप्लांट सिस्टम हमेशा के लिए कैसे बदल गया

肝移植システムはいかにして永遠に変わったか

간 이식 시스템이 어떻게 영원히 바뀌었나요?

Como o sistema de transplante de fígado mudou para sempre

Как система трансплантации печени изменилась навсегда

Karaciğer Nakli Sistemi Sonsuza Kadar Nasıl Değişti?

Hệ thống ghép gan đã thay đổi mãi mãi như thế nào

肝移植系统如何永远改变

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SURGLOGS

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SURGLOGS

EVERGREEN INDEX #10900

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