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VOYAGES FOR THE MUSCOVY COMPANY

The Letter of Master George Killingworth, the Company’s First Agent in Muscovy

The Discovery of Muscovy by Richard Hakluyt is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here . The Copy of the Duke of Muscovy and Emperor or Russia his Letters, sent to King Edward VI., by the hands of Richard Chanceler. The Copy of the Duke of Muscovy and Emperor or Russia his Letters, sent to King Edward VI., by the hands of Richard Chanceler. “The almighty power of God, and the incomprehensible Holy Trinity, rightful Christian belief, etc.  We, great Duke Ivan Vasilivich, by the grace of God Emperor of all Russia, and great Duke of Vladermerskij, Moskowskij, Novogrodskij, Cazanskii, Pskanskii, Smolenskii, Tuerskij, Hugorskij, Permskii, Veatskii, Bolgarskii, with divers other lands, Emperor also and great Duke of Novogoroda, and in the low countries of Chernigouskii, Rezanskii, Volotskii, Refskii, Belskii, Rostouskii, Yaroslavskii; Belocherskii, Oodorskii, Obdorskii, Codinskii, and many other countries, lord over all the north coast, greeting. “Before all right great and worthy of honour Edward, King of England, &c., according to our most hearty and good zeal, with good intent and friendly desire, and according to our holy Christian Faith and great governance, and being in the light of great understanding, our answer by this our honourable writing unto your kingly governance, at the request of your faithful servant Richard Chanceler, with his company, as they shall let you wisely know, is thus.  In the strength of the twentieth year of our governance, be it known, that at our sea coasts arrived a ship, with one Richard and his company, and said, that he was desirous to come into our dominions, and according to his request hath seen our Majesty and our eyes; and hath declared unto us your Majesty’s desire as that we should grant unto your subjects, to go and come, and in our dominions, and among our subjects to frequent free marts, with all sorts of merchandises, and upon the same to have wares for their return.  And they have also delivered us your letters which declare the same request.  And hereupon we have given order, that wheresoever your faithful servant Hugh Willoughbie land or touch in our dominions, to be well entertained, who as yet is not arrived, as your servant Richard can declare. “And we, with Christian belief and faithfulness, and according to your honourable request and my honourable commandment will not leave it undone, and are furthermore willing that you send unto us your ships and vessels, when, and as often as they may have passage, with good assurance on our part to see them harmless.  And if you send one of your Majesty’s council to treat with us, whereby your country merchants may with all kinds of wares, and where they will, make their market in our dominions, they shall have their free mart with all free liberties through my whole dominions with all kinds of wares, to come and go at their pleasure, without any let, damage, or impediment, according to this our letter, our word, and our seal, which we have commanded to be under-sealed.  Written in our dominion in our town and in our palace in the Castle of Moscow, in the year seven thousand and sixty, the second month of February.” This letter was written in the Muscovian tongue, in letters much like to the Greek letters, very fair written on paper with a broad seal hanging at the same, sealed in paper upon wax.  This seal was much like the broad seal of England, having on the one side the image of a man on horseback in complete harness fighting with a dragon. Under this letter was another paper written in the Dutch tongue, which was the interpretation of the other written in the Muscovian letters.  These letters were sent the next year after the date of King Edward’s letters, 1554. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Richard Hakluyt (2003). The Discovery of Muscovy. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022 https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4076/pg4076-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html .

The Copy of the Duke of Muscovy and Emperor or Russia his Letters, sent to King Edward VI.

THE NEW NAVIGATION AND DISCOVERY OF THE KINGDOM OF MUSCOVY

The Discovery of Muscovy by Richard Hakluyt, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. Read this book online for free on HackerNoon! : The Discovery of Muscovy Title : Richard Hakluyt Author : May 1, 2003 [EBook #4076] Most recently updated: September 27, 2014 Release date : English Language Table of Links INTRODUCTION The New navigation and discovery of the Kingdom of Muscovy The Copy of the Duke of Muscovy and Emperor or Russia his Letters, sent to King Edward VI., by the hands of Richard Chanceler. The Coins, Weights, and Measures, used in Russia. The Letter of Master George Killingworth, the Company’s First Agent in Muscovy, A Discourse The Voyage The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan Elegiac verse by William Wordsworth About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Richard Hakluyt (2003). The Discovery of Muscovy. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022 https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/4076/pg4076-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html .

The Discovery of Muscovy by Richard Hakluyt - Table of Links

Metamorphosis Commenced: Network States v0.01

মেটামরফোসিস শুরু হয়েছে: নেটওয়ার্ক স্টেটস v0.01

Beginn der Metamorphose: Netzwerkzustände v0.01

Metamorfosis comenzada: Estados de la red v0.01

La métamorphose a commencé : États du réseau v0.01

मेटामोर्फोसिस शुरू हुआ: नेटवर्क स्टेट्स v0.01

変態開始: ネットワーク状態 v0.01

변형 시작됨: 네트워크 상태 v0.01

Metamorfose iniciada: Estados de rede v0.01

Метаморфоза началась: Состояния сети v0.01

Metamorfoz Başladı: Ağ Durumları v0.01

Bắt đầu biến thái: Trạng thái mạng v0.01

蜕变开始：网络状态 v0.01

581 Stories To Learn About Non Fiction

There’s no denying the fact that the performance of our code carries a lot of importance. For countless applications, including HPC simulations, gaming, graphics, etc., performance does not just mean faster execution and less waiting times. It also directly relates to cost, energy usage, and user experience. A better-performing code often saves a lot of computational resources, potentially leading to cost-cutting measures, especially when running in supercomputing and data centers. However, the journey to improve performance can be a formidable challenge, with complexities that demand a strategic approach. Before enhancing performance, a crucial first step is to gauge the theoretical limits of achievable performance. This ensures the programmer knows what he’s aiming for and how far he can go with the performance optimization. This is where the performance models like the roofline model emerge as a guiding beacon. By providing insights into the theoretical performance limits and pinpointing bottlenecks, the roofline model becomes an invaluable tool for computational excellence, allowing developers to make informed decisions on performance optimization strategies. In this story, I’ll dig deeper into what the roofline model is all about. We’ll also go through a detailed example to showcase how to identify whether our algorithm is compute or memory-bound. The roofline model allows us to determine if our algorithm runs at its peak potential or requires more improvement. The rooflines The theoretical limits (or the rooflines) come mainly from the machine's architecture and memory characteristics. As discussed earlier in my blog post on the , it is up to the programmer to exploit the hardware’s capability for the maximal performance of the algorithm. necessity of parallelism Two major upper limits (or rooflines) for the achievable performance are: Peak performance Memory throughput/bandwidth Peak performance [operations/s] Applicable peak performance is dependent on the computational resources available on the hardware. Different architectural factors affect that, such as the processor’s clock frequency and pipelining implementation. This roofline also depends on the kinds of operations our code performs. For instance, the rooflines may differ for one code with fused multiply-add (FMA) operations and another with basic arithmetic operations. The capability of the algorithm to use vectorization or SIMD will also change its performance. Memory throughput/bandwidth Another ceiling comes from the fact that only a limited amount of data can be transferred between the memory and the CPU. This roofline is dependent on two aspects: the code-dependent computational (or arithmetic or operational) intensity [operations/byte] and the hardware-dependent peak bandwidth [byte/s]. What is computational intensity? Computational intensity determines the number of bytes transferred between the memory and the CPU for every floating-point operation in the algorithm. Put simply, it is the ratio of the total number of floating-point operations in your algorithm to the number of bytes transferred. Thus, measured as . operations/byte What about the peak memory bandwidth? Modern-day computers have an intricate memory hierarchy. A high-level representation of the memory hierarchy is as shown below: There are several data cache levels (mostly L1 to L3), followed by DRAM. The memory bandwidth of each of these memories varies considerably. While the Level 1 cache (L1) has the highest memory bandwidth, DRAM has the lowest. However, the capacity of L1 is substantially low (mainly in the orders of KBs in modern personal computer processors). In contrast, DRAM can be significantly larger (in the order of several GBs). A set of benchmarks like the can be used to identify the peak memory bandwidth. STREAM benchmark The Naïve roofline model Having discussed the basics, let’s proceed to how we utilize all this information to estimate our peak performance. A simple roofline model (the so-called Naïve roofline model) can be represented as: : upper bound on the performance [operations/s] Pₘₐₓ Machine dependent parameters: : applicable peak performance [operations/s] Pₚₑₐₖ : applicable peak bandwidth [byte/s] bₘₐₓ Code dependent parameter: : computational intensity [operations/byte] I As discussed above, the bottleneck can be the execution of work ( ) or the data path ( ). Pₚₑₐₖ I*bₘₐₓ Assumptions behind the model Several vital considerations contribute to the simplicity and effectiveness of the roofline model. First and foremost, the model assumes an ideal scenario where data transfer and core execution are perfectly overlapped, emphasizing the importance of seamless coordination between these two aspects of computation. The model operates on the principle that the slowest limiting factor, whether core execution or data transfer, dictates overall performance. In this competition, the “winner” is the factor with the most significant impact, while others are presumed to have negligible effects. Notably, latency effects are disregarded, implying an assumption of a perfect streaming mode where data transfer is already in progress. Finally, the model focuses on “steady-state” code execution, excluding wind-up and wind-down effects and assuming an entire pipeline, adding to its simplicity. Despite its simplicity, the roofline model proves highly effective by encapsulating this complexity, offering a practical tool for communication between High-Performance Computing (HPC) experts and application scientists. Refined roofline model The Naïve roofline model can be refined and improved in many ways. For starters, adding multiple rooflines for different kinds of arithmetic operations can improve the roofline model. Similarly, using different memory bandwidths for various available memories makes the model more expressive. An example is shown below: While doing theoretical calculations (as we’ll do very soon), the Naïve roofline model neglects latency effects. However, if we have sufficient information, we can include latency effects in our calculations, improving our predictions. Roofline model in action Let’s use what we learned above to apply the roofline model to a real problem. This example is inspired by my learnings while studying one of my favorite courses at the Technical University of Munich: Advanced Programming by the . TUM SCCS My machine has a single-core CPU with 2GHz frequency (pretty oldish, right?) and the following specifications: This CPU can perform 4 double-precision (8 bytes) floating point operations simultaneously (i.e., it is vectorized). 2. The latency of basic arithmetic operations (+, -, *) is 2 cycles (one operation per two cycles). 3. The latency of the fused multiply add operation (a += b * c) is 3 cycles. 4. These operations are not pipelined. 5. This CPU has 2 load units and 1 store unit, and each unit can accommodate 32 bytes (4 doubles). 6. Accessing the cache memory is pipelined and costs 5 cycles. The cache operates at 2 GHz. 7. Accessing the main memory is not pipelined and costs 10 cycles. The main memory operates at 800 MHz. 8. Both types of memory can either load 2 vector registers (2 × 32 bytes) or store 1 vector register (32 bytes) simultaneously. 9. Assume that one load/store unit of the CPU can load/store one vector register. Given all the architectural specifications, we can first calculate the hardware-dependent parameters of our model. After doing so, we can look at our code and proceed with the calculations of computational intensity. Calculating the applicable peak performance The theoretical peak performance will depend on the kind of operations we are doing. For basic arithmetic operations: As the CPU can perform 4 double-precision floating point operations simultaneously and the latency of basic arithmetic operations is 2 cycles, the theoretical peak performance can be measured as: For fused-multiplication-addition (FMA) operations: For FMA operations, there would be 2 FLOP/item (addition + multiplication). The latency, however, is 3 cycles. Thus, the theoretical peak performance is: Calculating the memory bandwidth Unfortunately, calculating the applicable memory bandwidth is a bit more complicated. As discussed above, different types of memories can have different bandwidth values (depending on their size and proximity to the processor). So, to accurately model the rooflines, it is essential to consider as many of these as possible. For our example, we’ll focus on the cache and main memory. Theoretical read bandwidth of the memory: Neglecting the latency effects due to the connection with the CPU, the read bandwidth of the main memory and cache will depend on their capacity and clock frequency. Both kinds of memory can either load 2 vector registers (2 × 32 bytes) or store 1 vector register (32 bytes) simultaneously (8th specification above). For main memory (without latency effects): For Cache (without latency effects): Similar calculations can be done for the theoretical write bandwidth. Applicable read/write bandwidth of the memory: In any real case scenario, the connection between the CPU and the memory (both cache and main memory) will bring in some latency effects. Because of these effects, the CPU can use only a fraction of the available bandwidth. So, it is essential to consider these effects. For main memory read (with latency effects): For main memory write (with latency effects): As mentioned in the specifications, access to the cache memory is (6th specification above). If the pipeline is full, the latency effects can be ignored for our calculations. pipelined For cache read (with pipelined access): For cache write (with pipelined access): Calculating the computational intensity Let’s consider an application whose core computation involves a matrix-matrix multiplication function. Here, the inner-most loop over computes the element of matrix by taking the dot product of the -th row of with the -th column of . i (row,col) result row left col right Here is the complete code: // result[row,column] = dot_product(left[row, :], right[:, col])
void matrix_mult(size_t rows, size_t columns, size_t k,
             double *left, double *right, double *result) {
  for (auto row = 0; row < rows; ++row) {
   for (auto col = 0; col < columns; ++col) {
     for (auto i = 0; i < k; ++i) {
       if (i == 0) {
         result[row*columns + col] = left[row*k + i] * right[i*columns + col];
       }  
       else {
         result[row*columns + col] += left[row*k + i] * ri[i*columns + col];
       }
    }
  }
 }
} As discussed above, Computational intensity determines the number of bytes transferred between the memory and the CPU for every floating-point operation in the algorithm. Put simply, it is the ratio of total number of floating-point operations in your algorithm to the number of bytes transferred. Thus, measured as . operations/byte Let’s start with the number of floating-point operations. Total number of floating-point operations: In total, the loops run for iterations. rows*columns*k However, for all , only multiplications are performed. So, a total of multiplications are performed. i = 0 rows*columns For the remaining iterations (that go inside the part), FMA (fused-multiply-add) operations are performed. In total, there are FMA operations. Each FMA operation consists of 2 floating-point operations. Thus, we have: else (k-1) *rows*columns Total multiplications: rows*columns Total FMA operations: (k-1)*rows*columns Total floating-point operations: … (i) (2k-2)*rows*columns + rows*columns = (2k-1)*rows*columns Total memory transactions: The next step is identifying the number of bytes transferred between the memory and the processor. This can be calculated by determining the total number of memory transactions between the two. Note: For simplification, we’ll assume that does not require memory interaction for the intermediate result . (a += b * c) b * c The algorithm comprises several read-and-write operations over the matrices. To calculate the total number of transactions, we need to consider all these (and potentially more). left, right, and result Let’s begin! matrix is read in every iteration. So, the total reads of the matrix sum up to . left left rows*columns*k Similarly, the matrix is also read these many times. right Is that all? No. The matrix is also read for FMA operations ( ). The total reads amount to . result _a =_ **_a_** _+ b * c_ rows*columns*(k-1) Finally, the matrix is accessed a total of times for writing operations. result rows*columns*k To summarize: Total read operations: … (j) 2*rows*columns*k + rows*columns*(k-1) = rows*columns*(3k-1) Total write operations: … (k) rows*columns*k Thus, the computational intensity can be calculated as: For reading data: Using and (i) (j): For writing data: Using and (i) (k): Putting it all together Phew! We’re almost there. Having calculated all the elements of our roofline model, let’s put everything together and see how our algorithm is performing and what the limiting component of the system is. Again, we break down everything in two cases. When the cache is not involved The reading speed can be calculated using the computational intensity calculated in and the applicable read bandwidth for the main memory in (l) (e): Similarly, the writing speed can be calculated using the computational intensity calculated in and the applicable write bandwidth for the main memory in (m) (f): Since most of the computations in the innermost loop use the fused-multiply-add instruction, we will take the FMA-peak as the peak floating-point performance of our CPU for both cases. Thus, using , the peak performance of our algorithm can be predicted as: (b) Looking at these numbers, it can be clearly seen that our algorithm is memory bound. It can do more floating-point operations, but our processor is not able to read/write the data fast enough. When the cache is involved The reading speed can be calculated using the computational intensity calculated in and the applicable read bandwidth for the cache in (l) (g): Similarly, the writing speed can be calculated using the computational intensity calculated in and the applicable write bandwidth for the cache in (m) (h): Again, using , the peak performance of our algorithm can be predicted as: (b) In this case, the algorithm is compute bound. While it can access the data quickly, it doesn’t have enough resources to perform as many floating-point operations. Thus, maybe we should consider a faster CPU for our algorithm! Final words This is how our roofline model would look like: This graph clearly lays out what the theoretical limits of our algorithm could be. Being aware of them, we can carefully identify the potential bottlenecks of our algorithm and try to reach the theoretical limits. Similarly, this also helps us identify when to stop optimizing our code, as maybe our hardware won’t allow further optimizations. As modern-day processors become more powerful, many algorithms tend to be memory-bound (because of the so-called “ ”). This is the reason why developers invest so much effort in improving the memory-access patterns. Memory Wall It is important to mention here that roofline analysis doesn’t always involve a lot of hand calculations. There are a range of open-source and commercial tools that may help us create powerful roofline visualization. These tools include — for collecting hardware specifiic roofline ceilings and tools like , and for collecting application specific performance. Empirical Roofline Tool (ERT) LIKWID Intel® Advisor Roofline Intel® VTune™ I hope this story helped you understand the basics and complexities of the roofline model! Suggested resources [1] A very short intro to the Roofline model — YouTube [2] Roofline_MuCoSim-SS22.pdf (fau.de) [3] Performance model — HPC Wiki (hpc-wiki.info) [4] RooflineVyNoYellow.pdf (berkeley.edu) [5] Roofline model (cornell.edu) [6] Tutorial-ISC2019-Intro-v2.pdf (nersc.gov) [7] Chair of Scientific Computing (tum.de) [8] berkeleylab / cs-roofline-toolkit — Bitbucket Also published . here Featured Photo by on Joshua Hoehne Unsplash

Understanding the Roofline Model 

Scientific American, Volume XLIII., No. 25, December 18, 1880, by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . A Poulterer's View of Mechanical Poultry Raising. here A Poulterer's View of Mechanical Poultry Raising. A prominent dealer in poultry, Mr. H. W. Knapp, of Washington Market, gives a discouraging opinion of the probable success of chicken raising by artificial means in this country. He said recently when questioned on this subject by a representative of the : Evening Post "I went to France to study the matter, for if it can be made to succeed it will make an immense fortune, as it has already done in Paris. I was delighted with what I saw there, and the matter at first sight seems to be so fascinating that I do not wonder that new men here are always ready to take hold of it as soon as those who have bought dear experience are only too glad to get out of it. Even clergymen and actors are bitten with the desire to transform so many pounds of corn into so many pounds of spring chicken. The now successful manager, Mackaye, spent about a thousand dollars, in constructing hatching machines and artificial mothers in Connecticut, but he found that the stage paid better, and his expensive devices may now be bought for the value of old tin. "Enthusiasts will tell you that by the new discovery chickens may be made out of corn with absolute certainty. In Paris this has been done; but the conditions are entirely different here. There the land is valuable, and they cannot devote large fields to a few hundred chickens; the French climate is so uniform that the markets of Paris cannot be supplied from the south with produce which ripens or matures before that of the neighborhood of Paris; the price of chickens is so high and labor so cheap that more care can be given with profit to one spring chicken than one of our poultry raisers could give to a dozen. Here we have plenty of land, the climate south of us is so far advanced in warmth that even with steam we cannot raise poultry ahead of the south, and the margin of profit is so small that one failure with a large batch of chickens sweeps away the profits from several successful experiments. "When persons wanted me to go into the project I declined and was called an old fogy. One man spent a fortune on the enterprise in New Jersey, and at first was hailed as a public benefactor. What was the result of all his outlay and work? He managed to hatch quantities of young chickens every February, but although he could fatten them by placing them in boxes and forcing a fattening mixture down their throats, he could not make them grow; they had no exercise; they remained puny little things, and another defect soon appeared: though fat they were tough and stringy. The breeder sent lots of them to me, and they looked fat and tender; but my customers complained that they could not be young, for they were tough and tasteless, and that I must have sold them aged dwarfs under the name of spring chickens. It was found absolutely necessary to let them run out of doors as soon as the weather allowed it, and by the time that they were ready for market the southern chickens were here and could be sold for less than these. The upshot of the business is that this breeder has sold out, and another man has now taken hold of a small part of his old establishment to try other methods of making it a success. "As to raising turkeys in that manner it will tail more disastrously than the chicken business. Size and weight are wanted in turkeys; and that reminds me," continued Mr. Knapp, "that the newspapers ought to impress the country people with the necessity of improving their poultry stock; breeding in and in is ruining poultry; every year the stock we receive is deteriorating, and this is the cause. I could give you some striking examples from my experience of forty years in the business. Some years ago we poulterers thought that ducks were going to disappear from bills of fare altogether; they were tasteless, worthless birds which people avoided. On Long Island a farmer made experiments in breeding with an old Muscovy drake, tough as an alligator, and the common duck. The result was superb and has changed the whole duck industry. If the farmers of Southern New Jersey, the sandy country best suited to turkeys, would bring from the West a few hundred wild turkeys we should have an immediate improvement. I see no such turkey now as we had twenty years ago. The breast is narrow and the body runs to length; it is all neck and legs, and can be bought by the yard. Rhode Island sends us the best turkeys, but they are not what they used to be. If, instead of attempting to beat nature at her own game, the rich men who have money to spend would devote it to better breeding, there would be an improvement. I do not yet despair of seeing immense farms wholly devoted to raising better poultry than we yet have." About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2007). Scientific American, Volume XLIII., No. 25, December 18, 1880. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/21081/pg21081-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

A Poulterer's View of Mechanical Poultry Raising

Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889, by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ON THE HEALTH VALUE TO MAN OF THE SO-CALLED DIVINELY BENEFICENT GIFT, TOBACCO. here ON THE HEALTH VALUE TO MAN OF THE SO-CALLED DIVINELY BENEFICENT GIFT, TOBACCO. By J.M.W. Kitchen, M.D., New York. With perhaps the exception of heredity, the question of stimulants and narcotics in their relation to the physical welfare of the race is second to none in importance. With trifling exceptions, the whole world is addicted to their use. The universality of such use has led many to consider them a necessity to man, and that they are God's gifts to him, and, if rightly used, are of physical benefit. It may not be a perversion of judgment to consider that their widespread popular use is greatly due to the efforts of the race to gain anæsthesia for, and distraction from, those pains and punishments that are the inevitable sequence of departure from hygienic and social law on the part of the individual, his ancestry, and society in general. The taste for these things is acquired, not natural, though the acquisition may be through hereditary influence. An idea is held by a majority of even fairly intelligent individuals that there is a justifiable, harmless, and even beneficial use of these substances by the general public, though acknowledging that beyond a certain indefinite line this use becomes an abuse. I believe that there may occasionally be cases in which the physical benefits derived from their use outweigh the injury they inflict, but I think this use is very much less than is generally supposed, and if we can judge from the preponderance of evil effected by such use, these substances ought to be considered as the materialized curses of God rather than as beneficent gifts. The prevalent idea as to the beneficent nature of these substances I consider to be a delusion that can only be explained upon the hypothesis that there is a widespread lack of appreciation of the fact that, though they may have an immediate pleasant and agreeable effect upon the body, their injurious effects are cumulative, and are usually ultimate, and so distant as to be difficult of direct connection with their cause to ordinary observation. The more moderate the use of these substances, the more remotely is the effect removed from the cause and more difficult of detection. That the ordinary habitual, so-called moderate use of stimulants and narcotics, such as tea, coffee, tobacco, and alcohol, is, in the vast majority of cases, really an abuse, is a proposition that I think should be admitted by all who have given the subject an unbiased study. The idea that the user of tobacco and other injurious substances will be cognizant of the injury inflicted by habitual use in moderate or even excessive amounts is an undoubted fallacy. The daily, weekly, or monthly injurious effect may be entirely unobservable to even trained physicians, and yet the ultimate cumulative effect may be fatal. I can instance numerous cases of physicians directly fatally injured by the use of alcohol, who have never had the slightest cognizance of the fact; and I can also instance cases of grave disease from the use of tobacco where the patients never have believed that tobacco has been the cause of their troubles, even after a unanimous opinion to that effect has been expressed by a number of competent medical advisers. The habitual consumption of opium, in doses of any amount, is generally admitted by most people to be physically injurious outside of its strict medicinal application. Moderate indulgence in alcohol as a beverage is beginning to acquire a very widespread evil reputation. But how about tobacco? Tea and coffee we can confidently leave to the consideration of a somewhat remote posterity of a considerably advanced intelligence and elevated hygienic ideals. The relation of tobacco to the physical welfare of man can only be fairly estimated by viewing the subject in its broadest aspect; by considering its effects upon the race as a whole rather than in individual cases; by taking into consideration economical and other social conditions that at first sight might be considered as having little relevancy to the medical side of the subject. But there can be no just consideration of the matter otherwise. The direct deleterious effects of the immoderate use of tobacco are readily observable; but the great bulk of the evil physical effects due to the moderate use of this plant are of an intermediate nature and not directly noticeable; nevertheless, they are real, and worthy of medical attention. The plainly marked results following the use of tobacco in relatively large amounts seem to be due to quick and extreme interference with nutrition, and a diminution of function of all kinds, which may be represented by anything from a slight decrease of appetite and digestive ability up to a complete loss of function of almost any important organ. Tobacco has stimulating as well narcotic properties, but as ordinarily used its stimulating effect appears to be slight as compared with its narcotic influence. In this respect it differs from alcohol, the use of which, owing to the usual method of introduction in large amounts through the stomach, produces directly, by stimulation, readily noticeable structural changes. But with tobacco the direct evil results are mostly of a functional character, and are more generally diffused, owing to the usual slow manner of introduction into the body. These two properties have an effect upon the body in moderate use as well as in immoderate use, the effect being simply in proportion to the quantity used, though the effects of moderate use may not be measurable by ordinary means. It is easy to see the effects of large amounts of tobacco in the stunted growth of adolescents; in functional cardiac disorders; in intellectual sluggishness, loss of memory, and color blindness; in loss of appetite, and other neuroses of motion, and marked blunting of various functions of sensation, and in degeneracy of descendants; but that lesser evils are produced must be proved mostly by inference, circumstantial collateral evidence, and analogy. The greater evils that are the outcome of a moderate use of tobacco are probably due to prolonged slight interference with nutrition, and consequent general decrease of vitality, which renders the individual more susceptible through indirect influence to the invasion of disease, and which lessens the capacity for productive effort. It is of course difficult, and perhaps even impossible, to accurately estimate the value of tobacco to the race; but let us glance at the pros and cons, and then each one can roughly estimate for himself. Tobacco may be used medicinally, but it is a dangerous and uncertain remedy, and it probably has not one medicinal use that cannot be more suitably met by other remedies. One can readily imagine easier digestion as the result of the sedative influence of the after-dinner cigar upon a disquieted nervous system, especially if the coincident irritation of alcohol and coffee have need of correction; but it can also be imagined that in most of such cases the remedy has been the cause of and will further increase the disordered condition, and that nutrition of deficiently nourished nerve tissue is rationally indicated rather than partial narcotization. There then remains, so far as I can see, the solace of moderate anæsthesia and, occasionally, of occupation for idlers, as the only items that can be placed to the credit of tobacco. There certainly are individual cases where such usage may be more provocative of physical benefit than evil, but, before judging for the race as a whole, compute the other side of the question. Tobacco injures the general health of the public through the economic loss caused by its consumption. The people of our country spend annually over seven hundred millions of dollars for tobacco—twenty per cent. more than is spent for bread. This sum represents only a minor part of the cost of the tobacco habit to the country. The crop is immensely exhaustive to the soil. Its culture has blighted whole sections of fertile territory. In the time consumed by the producer and the trader in its production, manufacture, and sale, and by the consumer in its use, and by the general interference with vital activity and consequent decreased productive capacity, there is represented an almost unimaginable sum of money. Certainly the people at large are not so well fed both as to quantity and quality, or so thoroughly clothed, or so hygienically housed that they can afford this gigantic economic waste. There can be little doubt that if the people had sufficient intelligence and moral strength to taboo tobacco, this comparatively senseless outgo would be largely devoted to supplying these and other necessities of an exalted health status. Tobacco injures health through its moral effects. The tobacco habit is certainly a dirty and frequently a disgusting habit, and encourages other dirty practices. Its use tends to make men cowardly, irritable in temper, and low in spirits. It blunts ideas of purity and courtesy, leading to invasion of the rights of others. It is presumed that few medical men would visit a delicate, sensitive patient after saturation with the "fragrant" effluvia of onions, but thousands whose systems are saturated with nicotine and who reek with nauseating odor do not hesitate to inflict their presence on sick or well. The time will come when the tobacco user will not be allowed to poison the atmosphere that is the common property of the public—will not be allowed to force the inhalation of nicotine upon the general public, to say nothing of being allowed to poison the infants and women in his own family. What would be said of a man who introduced poison in any degree into the food or drink of his child? Is the poisoning of the household atmosphere by the ignorant, thoughtless, or selfish smoker morally more defensible? Tobacco injures health through hereditary influence. The tobacco user begets, more certainly than the non-user, puny children with disordered nervous conditions. Luckily for our race, the women, who have the most important prenatal influence in guarding its physical well-being, are practically non-users of the plant. The general health status of the race is improving, not because the use of tobacco or the indulgence in other questionable practices is harmless, but because, among other things, of the great advance in general intelligence and knowledge of hygienic law. A person, or the public in general, may practice an injurious habit, and yet more than counteract its influence by opposing beneficial practices. Horace Greeley said, "Show me a drunkard who does not use tobacco, and I will show you a white blackbird." In this country, where dietetic drinking habits are not common in the family, the weakening of moral fiber by indulgence in tobacco is usually the introduction into the round of vicious indulgences, and thus directly or indirectly affects health. Smoking induces dryness of the mucous membrane of the mouth and consequent thirst. The partially paralyzed nerve terminals want something more stimulating than water to afford relief. Furthermore, blunted appetite induces deficient nutrition, and consequently there is a call for some "pick-me-up;" hence we find that the use of tobacco tends to the habitual use of alcoholic beverages, and there are very few habitual users of alcohol who escape without structural injuries to the body as well as perversion of its functions. Decrease of vital activity in all the tissues of the body marks the use of tobacco. The tendency is toward functional paralysis, though occasional signs of stimulative irritation are to be noticed, especially in the respiratory passages. The interference with intellectual activity is marked. It is said that during a period of fifty years no tobacco user stood at the head of his class in Harvard. The accumulated testimony of investigating observers is conclusive that, other things being equal, users of tobacco, in schools of all grades, never do so well in their studies as non-users. One head of a public school said he could always tell when a boy commenced to use tobacco by the record of his recitations. Professor Oliver, of the Annapolis Academy, said he could indicate the boy who used tobacco by his absolute inability to draw a clean, straight line. The deleterious effects of tobacco have become so clearly apparent that we find its sale to minors is prohibited in France, Germany, and various sections of this country. It is somewhat a question if, at the present time, the race is not doing itself more injury by its use of tobacco than it is with alcohol, because of its more universal use, particularly by youth, and because of the respectability of the habit, which comes of its use by a certain intelligent part of the race, including teachers of morals and physics, and even temperance reformers. There is a widespread sentiment in existence that it is not a respectable thing to be even partly paralyzed by alcohol, but how few there are who consider narcosis as in any way connected with the use of tobacco. Its effect is more diffused and masked, and is not so acutely serious in individual cases, but through its interference with vital activity, tobacco is probably more generally injurious to the race than alcohol. The editorial fiat of "too long" prevents a full exposition of the subject, but, in closing, let me say I hear millions of tobacco users ask, "Why, then, was this plant given to man, if its general effects are so decidedly evil?" The question presupposes design in creation. Without subscribing to this theory, or pretending to have solved the mystery of the presence of evil in the world, the answer may be suggested that the overcoming of many seductive evils becomes to man a means of his progressive higher development. Of one thing I am convinced, that the physical development and welfare of man is interfered with in strict sequence to his consumption of substances that are unnecessary for his nutrition—stimulants and narcotics inclusive.— Medical Record. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2004). Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16972/pg16972-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

ON THE HEALTH VALUE TO MAN OF THE SO-CALLED DIVINELY BENEFICENT GIFT, TOBACCO

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN.

A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School by Catharine Esther Beecher, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ON THE CARE OF INFANTS. here CHAPTER XIX. ON THE CARE OF INFANTS. Every young lady ought to learn how to take proper care of an infant; for, even if she is never to become the responsible guardian of a nursery, she will often be in situations where she can render benevolent aid to others, in this most fatiguing and anxious duty. The writer has known instances, in which young ladies, who, having been trained, by their mothers, properly to perform this duty, were, in some cases, the means of saving the lives of infants, and in others, of relieving, by their benevolent aid, sick mothers, from intolerable care and anguish. On this point, Dr. Combe remarks, "All women are not destined, in the course of Nature, to become mothers; but how very small is the number of those, who are unconnected, by family ties, friendship, or sympathy, with the children of others! How very few are there, who, at some time or other of their lives, would not find their usefulness and happiness increased, by the possession of a kind of knowledge, intimately allied to their best feelings and affections! And how important is it, to the mother herself, that her efforts should be seconded by intelligent, instead of ignorant, assistants!" In order to be prepared for such benevolent ministries, every young lady should improve the opportunity, whenever it is afforded her, for learning how to wash, dress, and tend, a young infant; and whenever she meets with such a work as Dr. Combe's, on the management of infants, she ought to read it, and its contents. remember It was the design of the author, to fill this chapter chiefly with extracts from various medical writers, giving some of the most important directions on this subject; but finding these extracts too prolix for a work of this kind, she has condensed them into a shorter compass. Some are quoted verbatim, and some are abridged, chiefly from the writings of Doctors Combe, Bell, and Eberle, who are among the most approved writers on this subject. "Nearly one half of the deaths, occurring during the first two years of existence, are ascribable to mismanagement, and to errors in diet. At birth, the stomach is feeble, and as yet unaccustomed to food; its cravings are consequently easily satisfied, and frequently renewed." "At that early age, there ought to be no fixed time for giving nourishment. The stomach cannot be thus satisfied." "The active call of the infant, is a sign, which needs never be mistaken." But care must be taken to determine between the crying of pain or uneasiness, and the call for food; and the practice of giving an infant food, to stop its cries, is often the means of increasing its sufferings. After a child has satisfied its hunger, from two to four hours should intervene, before another supply is given. "At birth, the stomach and bowels, never having been used, contain a quantity of mucous secretion, which requires to be removed. To effect this, Nature has rendered the first portions of the mother's milk purposely watery and laxative. Nurses, however, distrusting Nature, often hasten to administer some active purgative; and the consequence often is, irritation in the stomach and bowels, not easily subdued." It is only where the child is deprived of its mother's milk, as the first food, that some gentle laxative should be given. "It is a common mistake, to suppose, that, because a woman is nursing, she ought to live very fully, and to add an allowance of wine, porter, or other fermented liquor, to her usual diet. The only result of this plan, is, to cause an unnatural fulness in the system, which places the nurse on the brink of disease, and retards, rather than increases, the food of the infant. More will be gained by the observance of the ordinary laws of health, than by any foolish deviation, founded on ignorance." There is no point, on which medical men so emphatically lift the voice of warning, as in reference to administering medicines to infants. It is so difficult to discover what is the matter with an infant, its frame is so delicate and so susceptible, and slight causes have such a powerful influence, that it requires the utmost skill and judgement to ascertain what would be proper medicines, and the proper quantity to be given. Says Dr. Combe, "That there are cases, in which active means must be promptly used, to save the child, is perfectly true. But it is not less certain, that these are cases, of which no mother or nurse ought to attempt the treatment. As a general rule, where the child is well managed, medicine, of any kind, is very rarely required; and if disease were more generally regarded in its true light, not as something thrust into the system, which requires to be expelled by force, but as an aberration from a natural mode of action, produced by some external cause, we should be in less haste to attack it by medicine, and more watchful in its prevention. Accordingly, where a constant demand for medicine exists in a nursery, the mother may rest assured, that there is something essentially wrong in the treatment of her children. "Much havoc is made among infants, by the abuse of calomel and other medicines, which procure momentary relief, but end by producing incurable disease; and it has often excited my astonishment, to see how recklessly remedies of this kind are had recourse to, on the most trifling occasions, by mothers and nurses, who would be horrified, if they knew the nature of the power they are wielding, and the extent of injury they are inflicting." Instead, then, of depending on medicine, for the preservation of the health and life of an infant, the following precautions and preventives should be adopted. Take particular care of the of an infant. If it is nourished by the mother, her own diet should be simple, nourishing, and temperate. If the child be brought up by hand, the milk of a new-milch cow, mixed with one third water, and sweetened a little with sugar, should be the only food given, until the teeth come. This is more suitable, than any preparations of flour or arrow-root, the nourishment of which is too highly concentrated. Never give a child , , or , before the teeth appear. If the food appear to distress the child, after eating, first ascertain if the milk be really from a new-milch cow, as it may otherwise be too old. Learn, also, whether the cow lives on proper food. Cows that are fed on , as is often the case in cities, furnish milk which is very unhealthful. food white bread cake meat still-slops Be sure and keep a good supply of pure and fresh air, in the nursery. On this point, Dr. Bell remarks, respecting rooms constructed without fireplaces, and without doors or windows to let in pure air, from without, "The sufferings of children of feeble constitutions, are increased, beyond measure, by such lodgings as these. , ought to lie against those persons, who build houses for sale or rent, in which rooms are so constructed as not to allow of free ventilation; and taken out against those, who, with the common-sense experience which all have on this head, should spend any portion of their time, still more, should sleep, in rooms thus nearly air-tight." An action, brought by the Commonwealth a writ of lunacy After it is a month or two old, take an infant out to walk, or ride, in a little wagon, every fair and warm day; but be very careful that its feet, and every part of its body, are kept warm: and be sure that its eyes are well protected from the light. Weak eyes, and sometimes blindness, are caused by neglecting this precaution. Keep the head of an infant cool, never allowing too warm bonnets, nor permitting it to sink into soft pillows, when asleep. Keeping an infant's head too warm, very much increases nervous irritability; and this is the reason why medical men forbid the use of caps for infants. But the head of an infant should, especially while sleeping, be protected from draughts of air, and from getting cold. Be very careful of the skin of an infant, as nothing tends so effectually to prevent disease. For this end, it should be washed all over, every morning, and then gentle friction should be applied, with the hand, to the back, stomach, bowels, and limbs. The head should be thoroughly washed, every day, and then brushed with a soft hair-brush, or combed with a fine comb. If, by neglect, dirt accumulates under the hair, apply, with the finger, the yolk of an egg, and then the fine comb will remove it all, without any trouble. Dress the infant, so that it will be always warm, but not so as to cause perspiration. Be sure and keep its feet warm; and, for this end, often warm them at a fire, and use long dresses. Keep the neck and arms covered. For this purpose, wrappers, open in front, made high in the neck, with long sleeves, to put on over the frock, are now very fashionable. always It is better for both mother and child, that it should not sleep on the mother's arm, at night, unless the weather be extremely cold. This practice keeps the child too warm, and leads it to seek food too frequently. A child should ordinarily take nourishment but twice in the night. A crib beside the mother, with a plenty of warm and light covering, is best for the child; but the mother must be sure that it is always kept warm. Never cover a child's head, so that it will inhale the air of its own lungs. In very warm weather, especially in cities, great pains should be taken, to find fresh and cool air, by rides and sailing. Walks in a public square, in the cool of the morning, and frequent excursions in ferry or steam-boats, would often save a long bill for medical attendance. In hot nights, the windows should be kept open, and the infant laid on a mattress, or on folded blankets. A bit of straw matting, laid over a featherbed, and covered with the under sheet, makes a very cool bed for an infant. Cool bathing, in hot weather, is very useful; but the water should be very little cooler than the skin of the child. When the constitution is delicate, the water should be slightly warmed. Simply sponging the body, freely, in a tub, answers the same purpose as a regular bath. In very warm weather, this should be done two or three times a day, always waiting two or three hours after food has been given. "When the stomach is peculiarly irritable, (from teething,) it is of paramount necessity to withhold all the nostrums which have been so falsely lauded as 'sovereign cures for .' The true restoratives, to a child threatened with disease, are, cool air, cool bathing, and cool drinks of simple water, in addition to food, at stated intervals." Do not take the advice of mothers, who tell of this, that, and the other thing, which have proved excellent remedies in their experience. Children have different constitutions, and there are multitudes of different causes for their sickness; and what might cure one child, might kill another, which to have the same complaint. A mother should go on the general rule, of giving an infant very little medicine, and then only by the direction of a discreet and experienced physician. And there are cases, when, according to the views of the most distinguished and competent practitioners, physicians themselves are much too free in using medicines, instead of adopting measures. cholera infantum proper appeared preventive Do not allow a child to form such habits, that it will not be quiet, unless tended and amused. A healthy child should be accustomed to lie or sit in its cradle, much of the time; but it should occasionally be taken up, and tossed, or carried about, for exercise and amusement. An infant should be encouraged to , as an exercise very strengthening and useful. If the mother fears the soiling of its nice dresses, she can keep a long slip or apron, which will entirely cover the dress, and can be removed, when the child is taken in the arms. A child should not be allowed, when quite young, to bear its weight on its feet, very long at a time, as this tends to weaken and distort the limbs. creep Many mothers, with a little painstaking, succeed in putting their infants, while awake, into their cradle, at regular hours, for sleep, and induce regularity in other habits, which saves much trouble. In doing this, a child may cry, at first, a great deal; but for a healthy child, this use of the lungs does no harm, and tends rather to strengthen, than to injure, them. A child who is trained to lie or sit, and amuse itself, is happier than one who is carried and tended a great deal, and thus rendered restless and uneasy when not so indulged. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Catharine Esther Beecher (2007). A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/21829/pg21829-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

ON THE CARE OF INFANTS.

Let's learn about via these 85 free stories. They are ordered by most time reading created on HackerNoon. Visit the to find the most read stories about any technology. Travel /Learn Repo 1. The State of Uber in 55 Statistics I have a question for you 2. Artificial Intelligence: The Future Of Travel Industry Machines may not have taken over the world yet, but they are seeping into our lives and making it better. AI is changing every aspect of our lives. From self-driving cars to talking bots, there are so many examples of AI in use today. The technology is disrupting so many industries, and the travel industry isn’t exempt from this. Gone are the days when you had to count on a travel agent to plan your next vacation. You no longer need to engage yourself in that tiresome chain of conversations with your agent for your travel arrangements. AI now infiltrates every aspect of the travel industry. 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Ask Me Anything About Japan Japan is home to many things and is one of the longest-lasting civilizations in the world. There are many things the country has to offer. 45. 5 lessons we’ve learned while building PADI Travel booking You open Facebook and spot your friend on the beach with a cocktail in hand, and then your colleague in some picturesque settings that are, most certainly, far away from the office. Moreover, the ads with stunning snaps of different resorts are chasing you every time you open the browser. Travelling is no longer about intricate plans, large budgets and “we can afford it twice a year” thing. People want to discover more — and not only millennials, senior travelers are making <a href="https://usa.visa.com/partner-with-us/visa-performance-solutions/senior-travel-wanderlust.html" target="_blank">more and more travels</a> each year. Reflecting the demand, the market graciously responds with the reduced prices and sweet propositions to the increasing needs. 46. The Cure for Uncertain Times: Build a Badass Bug Out Bag The Chinese have a curse: “May you live in interesting times.” 47. The Top Twenty Apps and Sites to Find Fun, Romance and Adventure on the Road and at Home Looking for a little fun and adventure in your life? 48. How I Got an International “Custom MBA” Degree for $36,337 How I gained more for less than a fifth of the price of a top MBA 49. The Copy of the Duke of Muscovy and Emperor or Russia his Letters, sent to King Edward VI. These letters were sent the next year after the date of King Edward’s letters, 1554. 50. TO PROVE THAT THOSE INDIANS CAME NOT BY THE NORTH-EAST The like whereof also happeneth in the Frozen Sea, which proveth but small continuance of that sea toward the east. 51. The first relations between England and Russia were established in Queen Elizabeth’s reign The story of our first contact with Russia belongs to the days of Ivan the Terrible. 52. TO PROVE THAT THE INDIANS AFORENAMED CAME ONLY BY THE NORTH-WEST For if they had come by the Cape of Good Hope, then must they, as aforesaid, have fallen upon the south parts of America. 53. Traveltech in 2023: Metaverse, Robots, and Biometrics The travel industry, post-Covid, actually looks a lot brighter thanks to the travel tech that erupted out of the woodwork when everyone was trapped at home. 54. Tourism in the Metaverse:  Transitioning to a Hybrid Future of Travel Transitioning to a hybrid future of travel with the opportunity to build out more tourism experiences in the metaverse. 55. THE FIRST VOYAGE OF MASTER MARTIN FROBISHER To the North-West for the search of the passage or strait to China, written by Christopher Hall, and made in the year of our Lord 1576. 56. REVIVAL OF THE NORTHWEST THEORY From these two narrations, the one supplying details omitted by the other, the full graphic story is to be drawn. 57. The Discovery of Muscovy by Richard Hakluyt - Table of Links The Discovery of Muscovy by Richard Hakluyt, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. Read this book online for free on HackerNoon! 58. HOW THAT THE PASSAGE BY THE NORTH-WEST IS MORE COMMODIOUS FOR OUR TRAFFIC THAN THE OTHER BY THE EAST But by the north-west we may safely trade without danger or annoyance of any prince living, Christian or heathen, it being out of all their trades. 59. TO PROVE BY EXPERIENCE OF SUNDRY MEN’S TRAVELS THE OPENING OF SOME PART OF THIS NORTH-WEST PASSAGE Likewise Hieronimus Fracastorius, a learned Italian, and traveller in the north parts of the same land. 60. “THE PRINCIPAL NAVIGATIONS” The titles of the three-volumed second edition set forth the contents of each book with the same minute detail as that of the initial volume of 1589. 61. THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS "Henry by the grace of God, King of England and France, and lord of Ireland, to all to whom these presents shall come, Greeting. 62. WHAT COMMODITIES WOULD ENSUE, THIS PASSAGE ONCE DISCOVERED It hath been attempted by Corterialis the Portuguese, Scolmus the Dane, and by Sebastian Cabot in the time of King Henry VII. 63. VENTURES IN THE CABOTS’ TRACK With the failure of this enterprise Cabot again left England and reëntered the service of Spain, taking the post of “pilot major.” 64. QUEST FOR THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE A passage by way of “Cathay” had the most powerful attractions. 65. THE NORTHEAST PASSAGE Not long after he is found turning from the Northwest Passage and advising a new voyage for the discovery of a Northeast route to India. 66. 7 Useful Apps You Can Use in China Nowadays everyone is glued to their phones and it’s no different in China, the mobile phone is an indispensable tool and something we just cannot live without. Hands up if it’s one of the last things you see at night and the first thing you look at in the morning? I knew it! Coming to China, a very different country with a different culture and language, your phone becomes even more vital as it is one thing that makes you feel like you’re at home and keeps you connected to it. 67. RICHARD HAKLUYT THE MAN Richard Hakluyt was of an ancient Hertfordshire family, dating back in that historic county to the thirteenth century. 68. CERTAIN OTHER REASONS OR ARGUMENTS TO PROVE A PASSAGE BY THE NORTH-WEST Quarum quæ media est, non est habitabilis æstu. 69. BEGINNINGS OF AMERICA This was fittingly Hakluyt’s last published work. 70. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan With regard to the island Britannia, it is of considerable length to the north-east, being eight hundred miles long and only two hundred miles broad. 71. The Coins, Weights, and Measures, used in Russia Whensoever you find the prices of your wares rated by the pode, consider that to be the great weight, and the pound to be small. 72. A DISCOURSE It is to be considered that of the Bona Speranza no word nor knowledge was had at this present day, nor yet of the arrival of the ships or goods from Scotland. 73. TO PROVE BY AUTHORITY A PASSAGE TO BE ON THE NORTH SIDE OF AMERICA By the like experiment you may find the ordinary motion of the sea in the ocean, how far soever you be off the land. 74. FROBISHER IN ARCTIC AMERICA Best, furnishing a description of the spirited scenes at the departure, properly begins the story. 75. THE OPENING OF RUSSIA “Sir, Read and correct
For great is the defect.” 76. VOYAGES FOR THE MUSCOVY COMPANY For a time the four ships kept gallant company. 77. THE THIRD AND LAST VOYAGE INTO META INCOGNITA There fell also the same day, being the 26th July, such a horrible snow, that it lay a foot thick upon the hatches, which froze as fast as it fell. 78. Thirty-five years ago I made a voyage to the Arctic Seas in what Chaucer calls A little bote
No bigger than a mannë’s thought; 79. THE ENGLISH CLAIM TO AMERICA The fifth testimony, out of Gomara’s “General History,” is the following extract from a history of the West Indies published in 1552–1553. 80. The Letter of Master George Killingworth, the Company’s First Agent in Muscovy And to certify you of the weather here, men say, that these three hundred years was never so warm weather in this country at this time of the year. 81. THE EARLY VOYAGES “pendants and streams of purple and diverse other glorious colours, and flags of scarlet colour and silk.” 82. THE SECOND VOYAGE OF MASTER MARTIN FROBISHER It seemeth that these trees are driven from some part of the Newfoundland, with the current that setteth from the west to the east. 83. Are These Really Cheapest Places to Live in 2023? Traveling is crucial in life and these are the 10 cheapest places to live in 2023. 84. THE NEW NAVIGATION AND DISCOVERY OF THE KINGDOM OF MUSCOVY Upon the Saturday they eat flesh. 85. THE VOYAGE. The 29th of July we departed from Colmogro, and the 14th of August we came to Vstioug, where we remained one day, and changed our barques, or boats. Thank you for checking out the 85 most read stories about Travel on HackerNoon. to find the most read stories about any technology. Visit the /Learn Repo

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A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School by Catharine Esther Beecher, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ON CLEANLINESS. here CHAPTER IX. ON CLEANLINESS. The importance of cleanliness, in person and dress, can never be fully realized, by persons who are ignorant of the construction of the skin, and of the influence which its treatment has on the health of the body. Persons deficient in such knowledge, frequently sneer at what they deem the foolish and fidgety particularity of others, whose frequent ablutions and changes of clothing, exceed their own measure of importance. The popular maxim, that "dirt is healthy," has probably arisen from the fact, that playing in the open air is very beneficial to the health of children, who thus get dirt on their persons and clothes. But it is the fresh air and exercise, and not the dirt, which promotes the health. In a previous article, it was shown, that the lungs, bowels, kidneys, and skin, were the organs employed in throwing off those waste and noxious parts of the food not employed in nourishing the body. Of this, the skin has the largest duty to perform; throwing off, at least, twenty ounces every twenty-four hours, by means of insensible perspiration. When exercise sets the blood in quicker motion, it ministers its supplies faster, and there is consequently a greater residuum to be thrown off by the skin; and then the perspiration becomes so abundant as to be perceptible. In this state, if a sudden chill take place, the blood-vessels of the skin contract, the blood is driven from the surface, and the internal organs are taxed with a double duty. If the constitution be a strong one, these organs march on and perform the labor exacted. But if any of these organs be debilitated, the weakest one generally gives way, and some disease ensues. One of the most frequent illustrations of this reciprocated action, is afforded by a convivial meeting in cold weather. The heat of the room, the food, and the excitement, quicken the circulation, and perspiration is evolved. When the company passes into the cold air, a sudden revulsion takes place. The increased circulation continues, for some time after; but the skin being cooled, the blood retreats, and the internal organs are obliged to perform the duties of the skin as well as their own. Then, in case the lungs are the weakest organ, the mucous secretion becomes excessive; so that it would fill up the cells, and stop the breathing, were it not for the spasmodic effort called coughing, by which this substance is thrown out. In case the nerves are the weakest part of the system, such an exposure would result in pains in the head or teeth, or in some other nervous ailment. If the muscles be the weakest part, rheumatic affections will ensue; and if the bowels or kidneys be weakest, some disorder in their functions will result. But it is found, that the closing of the pores of the skin with other substances, tends to a similar result on the internal organs. In this situation, the skin is unable perfectly to perform its functions, and either the blood remains to a certain extent unpurified, or else the internal organs have an unnatural duty to perform. Either of these results tends to produce disease, and the gradual decay of the vital powers. Moreover, it has been shown, that the skin has the power of absorbing into the blood particles retained on its surface. In consequence of these peculiarities, the skin of the whole body needs to be washed, every day. This process removes from the pores the matter exhaled from the blood, and also that collected from the atmosphere and other bodies. If this process be not often performed, the pores of the skin fill up with the redundant matter expelled, and being pressed, by the clothing, to the surface of the body, the skin is both interrupted in its exhaling process, and its absorbents take back into the system portions of the noxious matter. Thus the blood is not relieved to the extent designed, while it receives back noxious particles, which are thus carried to the lungs, liver, and every part of the system. This is the reason why the articles worn next to the skin should often be changed; and why it is recommended that persons should not sleep in the article they wear next the skin through the day. The alternate change and airing of the articles worn next the body by day or night, is a practice very favorable to the health of the skin. The fresh air has the power of removing much of the noxious effluvia received from the body by the clothing. It is with reference to this, that on leaving a bed, its covering should be thrown open and exposed to the fresh air. The benefit arising from a proper care of the skin, is the reason why bathing has been so extensively practised by civilized nations. The Greeks and Romans considered bathing as indispensable to daily comfort, as much so, as their meals; and public baths were provided for all classes. In European countries, this practice is very prevalent, but there is no civilized nation which pays so little regard to the rules of health, on this subject, as our own. To wash the face, feet, hands, and neck, is the extent of the ablutions practised by perhaps the majority of our people. In regard to the use of the bath, there is need of some information, in order to prevent danger from its misuse. Persons in good health, and with strong constitutions, can use the cold bath, and the shower-bath, with entire safety and benefit. But if the constitution be feeble, cold bathing is injurious. If it is useful, it can be known by an invigorated feeling, and a warm glow on the skin; but if, instead of this, there be a feeling of debility, and the hands and feet become cold, it is a certain sign, that this kind of bathing is injurious. A bath at ninety-five degrees of Fahrenheit, is about the right temperature. A bath, blood warm, or a little cooler than the skin, is safe for all constitutions, if not protracted over half an hour. After bathing, the body should be rubbed with a brush or coarse towel, to remove the light scales of scarfskin, which adhere to it, and also to promote a healthful excitement. A bath should never be taken, till three hours after eating, as it interrupts the process of digestion, by withdrawing the blood from the stomach to the surface. Neither should it be taken, when the body is weary with exercise, nor be immediately followed by severe exercise. Many suppose that a warm bath exposes a person more readily to take cold; and that it tends to debilitate the system. This is not the case, unless it be protracted too long. If it be used so as to cleanse the skin, and give it a gentle stimulus, it is better able to resist cold than before the process. This is the reason why the Swedes and Russians can rush, reeking, out of their steam baths, and throw themselves into the snow, and not only escape injury, but feel invigorated. It is for a similar reason, that we suffer less in going into the cold, from a warm room, with our body entirely warm, than when we go out somewhat chilled. When the skin is warm, the circulation is active on the surface, and the cold does not so reduce its temperature, but that increased exercise will keep up its warmth. When families have no bathing establishment, every member should wash the whole person, on rising or going to bed, either in cold or warm water, according to the constitution. It is especially important, that children have the perspiration and other impurities, which their exercise and sports have occasioned, removed from their skin before going to bed. The hours of sleep are those when the body most freely exhales the waste matter of the system, and all the pores should be properly freed from impediments to this healthful operation. For this purpose, a large tin wash-pan should be kept for children, just large enough, at bottom, for them to stand in, and flaring outward, so as to be very broad at top. A child can then be placed in it, standing, and washed with a sponge, without wetting the floor. Being small at bottom, it is better than a tub; it is not only smaller, but lighter, and requires less water. These remarks indicate the wisdom of those parents, who habitually wash their children, all over, before they go to bed. The chance of life and health, to such children, is greatly increased by this practice; and no doubt much of the suffering of childhood, from cutaneous eruptions, weak eyes, earache, colds, and fevers, is owing to a neglect of the skin. The care of the teeth should be made habitual to children, not merely as promoting an agreeable appearance, but as a needful preservative. The saliva contains tartar, an earthy substance, which is deposited on the teeth, and destroys both their beauty and health. This can be prevented, by the use of the brush, night and morning. But, if this be neglected, the deposite becomes hard, and can be removed only by the dentist. If suffered to remain, it tends to destroy the health of the gums; they gradually decay, and thus the roots of the teeth become bare, and they often drop out. When children are shedding their first set of teeth, care should be taken, to remove them as soon as they become loose; otherwise the new teeth will grow awry. When persons have defective teeth, they can often be saved, by having them filled by a dentist. This also will frequently prevent the toothache. Children should be taught to take proper care of their nails. Long and dirty nails have a disagreeable appearance. When children wash, in the morning, they should be supplied with an instrument to clean the nails, and be required to use it. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Catharine Esther Beecher (2007). A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/21829/pg21829-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

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