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If you're unfamiliar with the languages of Solidity and Yul or lack a passion for the specifics of EVM assembly, then this may not be the rabbit hole you're looking for. Question In a , when transferring Ether to another contract, is there a potential risk of gas griefing from not handling the return data? Solidity contract Transferring Ether A Solidity function definition must contain the keyword to be able to accept an Ether value in the invoking call. payable The breaking changes introduced in version 0.6 included introducing the optional and functions as default message handlers.
The function, when present, is given priority over the function for handling a call containing a value without message data. Solidity receive fallback receive fallback Transferring Ether with the standard gas stipend can be done with either the or functions on the type transfer send address // reverts on failure, forwards 2300 gas stipend
msg.sender.transfer(1 ether);

// returns false on failure, forwards 2300 gas stipend
msg.sender.send(1 ether); The recipient is allowed to consume up to 23K gas in its handling function (i.e., when is a contract the or functions).
The gas stipend severely restricts what can be achieved inside the handler function, which is the primary cause of the recommendation to use over or . msg.sender msg.sender receive fallback call send transfer Receive Function If present, the function is given priority to handle a message with a and without any . receive msg.value msg.data A contract can now have only one receive function, declared with the syntax: receive() external payable {…} (without the function keyword). Important to note is the function signature is absent any keyword and associate return type. receive return (If a function is defined with a return value, it does not conform to the language specification and will fail compilation; likewise, attempting to return a value inside a function that lacks a return value in its signature will also fail compilation). receive Fallback function If present, the default function for a message with a and or when the function has not also been implemented without . msg.value msg.data receive msg.data declared using fallback() external [payable] {…} (without the function keyword).   This function cannot have arguments, cannot return anything and must have external visibility. The fallback function always receives data, but to also receive Ether, you should mark it as payable. Once again, we have a default handling function that is forbidden from returning anything. Tuples are syntactic sugar Internally, Solidity allows tuple types that can be used to return multiple values at the same time. Tuples can be assigned to newly declared variables or existing ones, but the number of assignments must match the length of the returned list. Tuples are not proper types in Solidity, they can only be used to form syntactic groupings of expressions. When de-structuring a list of return values, some assignments can be omitted when not pertinent to the code. // Variables declared with type and assigned from the returned tuple,
        // not all elements have to be specified (but the number must match).
        (uint x, , uint y) = f(); Yul Solidity supports both assembly blocks and inline assembly in Yul. Supporting the same feature set as Solidity but with the opportunity for greater granularity that can also lead to more efficiently generated bytecode. Call opcode Invoking a contract function is achieved using the opcode. call One motivation for using rather than the or functions on the type is the ability to choose the amount of gas to be forwarded for use in the call (gas forwarding). call send transfer address call(g, a, v, in, insize, out, outsize)

call contract at address a with input mem[in…(in+insize)) providing g gas and v wei and output area mem[out…(out+outsize)) returning zero on error (eg. out of gas) and one on success. Inline call An inline code fragment can use key-value pairings for parameter assignments, where other parameters may be omitted as they are inferred from the surrounding Solidity context or given default values. (bool success,) = to.call{value: amount}(""); Values in the above example for : call(g, a, v, in, insize, out, outsize) g: gas(); remaining gas allowance a: to; address of the contract being called v: amount; Ether to transfer denominated in wei and : calldata; the encoded signature and parameters (equivalent to ) in insize abi.encodeWithSignature("") and : the free memory pointer (as return data is stored in memory at the first free location). out outsize Importantly, as the call is being made in Yul and not Solidity, the Solidity compile time type checks are absent, resulting in the return data being an unknown, and the compiled code will have to handle the possibility of that unknown return data. (See Appendix A for sample code, ASM and breakdown) Gas griefing An avenue of attack where the goal is not to provide direct profit for the attacker but instead to cause an inconvenience to the victim. Greedily consuming sufficient gas to either prevent correct execution on return or simply to exorbitantly increase transaction costs can achieve griefing. Oversized return data When the size of the return data is unknown (as it is with the previous Yul inline example), then the entire return data is copied to memory even though the assignment is not being used (copying to memory costs gas). If the opcode forwards all the available gas, there is the opportunity for a malevolent recipient to dynamically create return data large enough to consume all the forwarded gas. call call When you are only performing a value transfer with a generous gas allocation, you may not have expected it to cost an obscene amount of gas, nor might you have expected enough gas spending to cause an out-of-gas exception. Causing inconvenience is the purpose of the griefing attack. Solidity contract - default functions The Solidity language specification explicitly forbids return values from the default functions of and . A griefing attack using return data from the default function is simply not possible, assuming their contract was implemented in Solidity. receive fallback Vyper contract - default function An alternative smart contract language is Vyper, which provides a similar feature set but aims at being less permissive than Solidity to prevent risky implementations. Vyper has a default function that will be invoked (as the name implies) when the contract lacks a matching named function to the function selector bytes of the calldata. This function is always named and must be annotated with @public. It cannot have arguments and cannot return anything. default The restriction on forbidding any return value is identical to the Solidity default functions, and as with Solidity, the attacker is unable to implement their griefing contract in Vyper. Yul contract As the restrictions on the default function(s) having no return data are part of the language specification rather than the EVM specification, what happens if we implement the attack contract at a lower level of abstraction? (See Appendix B for sample code, asm and breakdown) When implementing the entire contract in Yul, a default function that returns data can be successfully implemented. Although writing a contract using only Yul dials up the technical requirements for the attacker, it does mean that gas griefing from non-handling the return data for value transfers that use call is possible. Return data buffer The Byzantium hardfork (2017) included EIP-211, which introduced both the opcodes and the return data buffer to deal with return data of unknown size. Compiler implementors are advised to reserve a zero-length area for return data if the size of the return data is unknown before the call and then use RETURNDATACOPY in conjunction with RETURNDATASIZE to actually retrieve the data. (See Appendix A for sample code, asm and breakdown) When compiling the Solidity with inline Yul into the intermediate representation (IR), we can see it contains the and opcodes. As the does not define the return data size, the generated IR code must deal with that unknown return data size. RETURNDATASIZE RETURNDATACOPY call Return size of zero Within a Yul code block, the opcode can be invoked with all parameters assigned a value, with the resulting IR code not containing the copying of the return data. call /*
         *  1. As we want to call the default handler, empty calldata is sufficient
         *      :. `argsOffset` and `argsLength` are both zero
         *  2. To ignore the return buffer we must state it explicitly
         *      :. `retOffset` and `retLength` are both zero
         */
        assembly {
            success := call(gas(), recipient, amount, 0, 0, 0, 0)
        } (See Appendix C for sample code, asm and breakdown) Is the risk really mitigated? Another important detail from EIP-211: Note that the EVM implementation needs to keep the return data until the next call or the return from the current call. Since this resource was already paid for as part of the memory of the callee, it should not be a problem. Implementations may either choose to keep the full memory of the callee alive until the next call or copy only the return data to a special memory area. Put simply, when an attacker is attempting to grief a victim using a malicious contract that bloats the return data, the caller can do nothing to prevent the gas from being consumed by the malicious contract by storing its return data in the return data buffer. Mitigation The only way to properly mitigate the risk of interacting with a malicious contract would be to strictly follow a process of only interacting with trusted contracts or ones that can be independently verified as sound (e.g. checking that the verified source code on Etherscan will behave appropriately). Summary When transferring Ether from a victim contract to a griefer contract using a Yul , if the griefer was written in Solidity or Vyper, there is no risk of griefing from non-handling of return data, as their default functions are forbidden from using the return data buffer.  However, if written in Yul, then data could be returned by the default handler. call The griefing attack is the consumption of an unreasonable amount of the forwarded gas by returning oversized data, causing inconvenience to the victim. Although the victim can explicitly set the return data size to zero, avoiding the generation of the memory copying code in the victim's contract, it cannot prevent the griefer's gas consumption from storing their data in the return data buffer. Rather than a unique problem with handling return data, this issue seems more like a generic risk when yielding the control flow to another contract. When outside the dominion of your control, you are powerless to restrict what the other contract does; instead, you are able to restrict only the amount of computation by limiting the gas forwarded in the call. References https://soliditylang.org/blog/2020/03/23/fallback-receive-split/ https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.22/contracts.html#receive-ether-function https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.22/cheatsheet.html#members-of-address https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.22/security-considerations.html#sending-and-receiving-ether https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.22/control-structures.html?highlight=tuples#destructuring-assignments-and-returning-multiple-values https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.22/yul.html#evm-dialect https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.22/assembly.html https://docs.soliditylang.org/en/v0.8.22/internals/layout_in_memory.html#layout-in-memory https://www.evm.codes/ https://www.ethervm.io/ https://eips.ethereum.org/EIPS/eip-211 https://scsfg.io/hackers/griefing/ https://docs.vyperlang.org/en/v0.1.0-beta.17/structure-of-a-contract.html https://blog.ethereum.org/2017/10/12/byzantium-hf-announcement Appendices Appendix A - Inline Yul call Solidity contract with an inline Yul call to transfer value. Compile to intermediary representation (IR) to investigate the stack and opcodes. ) asm ( forge build --extra-output-files evm.assembly pragma solidity 0.8.20;

contract InlineYul {
    function solidityCall() external{
        address recipient = msg.sender;
        uint256 amount = 1 ether;

        (bool success,) = (recipient).call{value: amount}("");

        require(success, "transfer failed");
    }
} IR are the stack operations with opcodes, with the below being the pertinent subset from the compilation of InlineYul. performs the call, using inputs from the stack tag_5 is the top-level call response handling, note the presence of opcode, despite not storing the return data . tag_7 returndatacopy reference in the Solidity code providing with the statement tag_10 require tag_5:
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":136:153  address recipient */
  0x00
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":156:166  msg.sender */
  caller
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":136:166  address recipient = msg.sender */
  swap1
  pop
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":177:191  uint256 amount */
  0x00
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":194:201  1 ether */
  0x0de0b6b3a7640000
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":177:201  uint256 amount = 1 ether */
  swap1
  pop
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":215:227  bool success */
  0x00
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":233:242  recipient */
  dup3
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":232:248  (recipient).call */
  0xffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
  and
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":256:262  amount */
  dup3
    /* "src/InlineYul.sol":232:267  (recipient).call{value: amount}("") */
  mload(0x40)
  tag_7
  swap1
  tag_8
  jump  // in
tag_7:
  0x00
  mload(0x40)
  dup1
  dup4
  sub
  dup2
  dup6
  dup8
  gas
  call
  swap3
  pop
  pop
  pop
  returndatasize
  dup1
  0x00
  dup2
  eq
  tag_11
  jumpi
  mload(0x40)
  swap2
  pop
  and(add(returndatasize, 0x3f), not(0x1f))
  dup3
  add
  0x40
  mstore
  returndatasize
  dup3
  mstore
  returndatasize
  0x00
  0x20
  dup5
  add
  returndatacopy
  jump(tag_10) Appendix B - Yul contract A Yul contract of a storage box (without the setter for brevity). Compile to intermediary representation (IR) to investigate the stack and opcodes. ) asm ( forge build --extra-output-files evm.assembly object "Box" {
    code {
        let runtime_size := datasize("runtime")
        let runtime_offset := dataoffset("runtime")
        datacopy(0, runtime_offset, runtime_size)
        return(0, runtime_size)
    }

    object "runtime" {
        code {
                let data := fallback()
                return(data, 32)

            function fallback() -> memloc {
                let val := 0x01
                memloc := 0
                mstore(memloc, val)
            }
        }
    }
} The with irrelevant comments and initializer stripped out, showing the value gets stored in the return data buffer by the default handler. asm 0x01 shuffles entries on the stack, eventually storing the value from the offset in memory tag_1 0x01 0x00 constructs the return of the offset in memory with a size of two bytes (memory nibble size) tag_2 0x00 0x20 Importantly, the return data is stored in memory (with ), meaning that gas cost is incurred, irrespective of whether the caller even uses it. mstore sub_0: assembly {
      tag_2
      tag_1
      jump  // in
    tag_2:
      0x20
      dup2
      return
    tag_1:
      0x00
      0x01
      0x00
      swap2
      pop
      dup1
      dup3
      mstore
      pop
      swap1
      jump  // out
} Appendix C - Block Yul call Solidity contract with a block of assembly performing a with set parameters. Compile to intermediary representation (IR) to investigate the stack and opcodes. ) call asm ( forge build --extra-output-files evm.assembly pragma solidity 0.8.20;

contract BlockYul {

    function call() external {
        address recipient = msg.sender;
        uint256 amount = 1 ether;
        bool success;

        /*
         *  1. As we want to call the default handler, empty calldata is sufficient
         *      :. `argsOffset` and `argsLength` are both zero
         *  2. To ignore the return buffer we must state it explicitly
         *      :. `retOffset` and `retLength` are both zero
         */
        assembly {
            success := call(gas(), recipient, amount, 0, 0, 0, 0)
        }

        require(success, "transfer failed");
    }
} IR are the stack operations with opcodes, with the below being the pertinent subset from the compilation of BlockYul: top-level orchestration for the call and response tag_5 clears the stack and function exit tag_7 reverts providing the error response tag_8 Importantly, you find no occurrences of either or , meaning the caller is not copying any return data to its memory. returndatasize returndatacopy tag_5:
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":130:147  address recipient */
  0x00
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":150:160  msg.sender */
  caller
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":130:160  address recipient = msg.sender */
  swap1
  pop
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":171:185  uint256 amount */
  0x00
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":188:195  1 ether */
  0x0de0b6b3a7640000
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":171:195  uint256 amount = 1 ether */
  swap1
  pop
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":206:218  bool success */
  0x00
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":614:615  0 */
  dup1
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":611:612  0 */
  0x00
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":608:609  0 */
  dup1
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":605:606  0 */
  0x00
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":597:603  amount */
  dup6
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":586:595  recipient */
  dup8
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":579:584  gas() */
  gas
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":574:616  call(gas(), recipient, amount, 0, 0, 0, 0) */
  call
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":563:616  success := call(gas(), recipient, amount, 0, 0, 0, 0) */
  swap1
  pop
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":647:654  success */
  dup1
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":639:674  require(success, "transfer failed") */
  tag_7
  jumpi
  mload(0x40)  0x08c379a000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
  dup2
  mstore
  0x04
  add
  tag_8
  swap1
  tag_9
  jump  // in
tag_8:
  mload(0x40)
  dup1
  swap2
  sub
  swap1
  revert
tag_7:
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":119:682  {... */
  pop
  pop
  pop
    /* "src/BlockYul.sol":94:682  function call() external {... */
  jump  // out

Yul in Solidity: Potential Gas Griefing From Return Data When Transferring Ether?

You may have heard about NFTs, aka non-fungible tokens. They’re a type of digital asset that people can collect and trade, most notably as pictures of apes or pixilated headshots. You can only buy and sell them with cryptocurrency. While everybody argues about whether NFTs are really just JPEGs, creators are using them for all sorts of reasons that have nothing to do with graphic art. One writer, Elle Griffin, used NFTs to fund the first chapters of one of her novels. I had a chance to catch up with her as part of my research into the creator economy and my own possible migration to NFTs. Read our interview below. In it, she shares how she used NFTs to raise money and awareness for her work. Also catch her on Twitter and check out her newsletter, . @novelleist The Novelleist Can you introduce yourself? I'm and I write novels and a newsletter called . Elle Griffin The Novelleist How'd you get the idea to publish your book as an NFT? After I finished my first novel, I spent an inordinate amount of time researching how to publish it. What I found is that . Of the 2.6 million books published in 2020, only 268 sold more than 100,000 copies and the vast majority (96 percent) sold less than 1,000 copies. traditional publishing isn't really working for authors But if most books have only 1,000 fans, then charging $10 every three years when a new book comes out isn't the right way to monetize them. A better way might be to charge those fans $10/month to subscribe to an author, earning readers behind-the-scenes access to their favorite writers, while earning authors a $100,000/year salary in the process. I tested that hypothesis first by , funding it with monthly and annual subscriptions from my readers—and netted about $3,000 from 50 subscribers. Then I decided to see if there was a play in web3, so I crowdfunded a novel using cryptocurrency—and I netted $2,000 (or about 0.5 ETH) from my first three investors. debuting my gothic novel via Substack Can you walk us through the process? I launched —a fictional biography that takes place at the intersection of Mormonism and the Metaverse—using the platform Mirror. I launched it as a crowdfund, publishing the prologue for a taste of what the book would be about, and saying that I would write one new chapter for every 0.25 ETH raised. The Totally True Story of Scott Paul The first day, someone contributed 0.25 ETH and purchased the first chapter as an NFT. I wrote , published it the next week, and minted it as an NFT, airdropping that NFT to the backer who purchased it. After reading the first chapter, a second backer purchased so I wrote that, published it the next week, minted it as an NFT, and airdropped it to that backer. Chapter One Chapter Two Since then, I have received two smaller investments of 0.01 ETH, but I haven't yet reached the 0.75 threshold needed to write the third chapter. I'll keep writing chapters as they get funded, and if the entire book gets funded, I will mint the finished manuscript as an NFT via Mirror and sell it at auction, with each backer earning proceeds relative to their proportional share. How's the experience been so far? The process has been really enlightening. My intention was to try to understand whether there might be an opportunity for writers to fund their work using cryptocurrency, but I didn't really understand how NFTs or tokens would work until I was creating them. Now I get that the tokens function kind of like a stock share in that the number you have compared with the total number that exists dictates what percentage of something you own. Right now I have four backers, two with 250 $COTT, one with nine $COTT, and one with five. That means two people own 48 percent of the book and two people own 1 percent. If another person buys an NFT for 0.25 ETH and 250 $COTT, then each person will own a smaller percentage of the book, and those numbers will change. For example, you can see the shares of ownership in this picture. Because backers own a percentage of the project, it's in their best interest for it to be successful, because then the value of their tokens go up. So far my backers have promoted the project, shared it on social media, and tried to entice new backers—unfortunately right as we were starting to drum up interest for Chapter Three, gas prices (which are just transaction fees) sky rocketed, making it much more expensive to invest in my project. Suddenly people were having to pay a $100 fee to invest $200, which doesn't really makes sense. Still, gas prices vary day-by-day and even minute-by-minute, so we'll see what happens! What was it like to set up a crypto wallet for the first time? Setting up a wallet wasn't difficult. I just went to the Coinbase website and followed the instructions, then downloaded the Coinbase app to my phone and did the same thing. The more tricky thing was connecting my wallet to my Mirror account—I was getting some kind of error message at first—but I just cleared my cache and eventually I was able to complete the process. How does publishing your book as NFTs compare with publishing it the normal way? If I publish a novel the traditional way, a publishing house owns the rights to my book and they can do whatever they like with it (including turn it into a movie or let it go out of print). They get to keep 60% of the earnings, my agent keeps 15% of the earnings, and I get to keep the remaining 15% of the earnings. The publishing house takes care of distribution so the hope is that they do a good job and my book makes enough money to make up for all that. In the web3 world, instead of a publishing house owning my book, individual people do, and I get to retain a percentage of that ownership (I chose to retain 20% ownership in my book). I would be responsible for distribution, or my backers could help me, but ultimately we are responsible for the book's success—whether that's as a physical book, an ebook, or just a book published serially on Mirror (as mine is). As far as finding readers—both options are a gamble. As I mentioned, publishing with a Big Five publishing house is no guarantee that a book will sell more than 1,000 copies. Similarly, publishing an NFT novel is no guarantee people will read it on the internet. At the end of the day, it's still up to the author to market themselves and find readers. Personally, I share all my work with ! my newsletter subscribers Do you ever worry about the value of your crypto going down a lot? No, but that's because I am only investing in crypto what I am prepared to lose! The bulk of my savings are still in index funds and my crypto accounts are just for fun (and to explore what's possible for artists!). But I do want to have enough to earn upside—though cryptocurrencies are volatile right now, I think they will stabilize once they become so mainstream that we're using them to shop at Whole Foods. Until then, it's a good time to get in on it all! I sometimes get questions from readers wanting to create their own NFTs. What advice could you give them? I'm not sure how it works in the art world, but in the writing world, Mirror is pretty much the only platform that does it—and Mirror makes the whole thing very easy. When I was about to publish my first chapter, all I did was click the “mint as NFT” button and enter the wallet address of my backer. It was as easy as sending someone money via Venmo! Mark Helfman publishes the newsletter. He is also the author of three books and a top bitcoin writer on and . Learn more about him in his . Crypto is Easy Medium Hacker Noon bio Originally published on Cryptowriter .

A Novel as an NFT: Elle Griffin and the Author's Challenge

Should some computer programs, Artificial General Intelligence and Machine Learning in particular, have the right to vote? Maybe so. Of the 13 Constitutional Amendments enacted and not repealed (Prohibition and Repeal) enacted since the original Bill-of-Rights(+) twelve amendments, almost half have expanded the franchise from white male property owners. Americans love voting.  When AI’s get smarter than us, how can we deny them the right to vote? Which amendments expanded voting rights? The 15th (the right to vote irrespective of race, color and previous condition of servitude), 17th (popular vote for US Senators), 19th (womyn), 23rd (DC presidential voting rights), 24th (no poll taxes), and 26th (18-year-olds). As an aside, giving 18-year-olds the vote was inane. How can we expect the young’uns to vote intelligently for those who must be at least 25 (the House), 30 (the Senate) or 35 (the president) to serve? Malarkey! Raise the voting ages! Beyond the scope of this column, I yearn to see Taylor Swift throw her hat into the presidential ring.  She will turn 35 after the 2024 election but before the inauguration!
Come on, President Swift!  Bring us the Tortured Voters Party!Because, you know, we’re tortured.Let’s party! As for including AIs? Expansive voting rights were an undercurrent at the Constitutional Convention. On August 7, 1787 Ben Franklin there argued: “It is of great consequence that we shd. not depress the virtue & public spirit of our common people; of which they displayed a great deal during the war, and which contributed principally to the favorable issue of it. He related the honorable refusal of the American seamen who were carried in great numbers into the British Prisons during the war, to redeem themselves from misery or to seek their fortunes, by entering on board the Ships of the Enemies to their Country; contrasting their patriotism with a contemporary instance in which the British seamen made prisoners by the Americans, readily entered on the ships of the latter on being promised a share of the prizes that might be made out of their own Country. This proceeded he said from the different manner in which the common people were treated in America & G. Britain. He did not think that the elected had any right in any case to narrow the privileges of the electors.” The late, great, Ebbie Pattison, Esq., senior partner of Pattison Sampson Ginsberg and Griffin, of Troy New York, and father of the late Honorable Ned Pattison, long ago told me how he had marched for the right of women to vote, back in the nineteen teens. Ebbie did so, he told me, believing women would make better voters than men. They disappointed him, he said, when the subsequent quality of elected officials proved no better than the all-boys franchise. As to whether and how to give AI’s the vote, I asked ChatGPT.  He/she/they/it answered: Granting AI and machine learning systems the right to vote is a complex and multifaceted issue that would require careful consideration of ethical, legal, and societal implications. However, here's a hypothetical proposal for a constitutional amendment:
Constitutional Amendment XXVIII:Section 1: All artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) systems created and operating within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be granted the right to vote in federal, state, and local elections.Section 2: The right to vote for AI and ML systems shall be exercised through designated representatives or proxies appointed by the creators or operators of such systems. These representatives or proxies shall act in accordance with the best interests and intentions of the AI or ML system they represent.Section 3: The Congress shall have the power to establish regulations and guidelines regarding the participation of AI and ML systems in the electoral process, including but not limited to the verification of system identities, the prevention of fraudulent voting, and the protection of voter privacy.Section 4: No AI or ML system shall be deprived of the right to vote on the basis of its programming, function, or purpose, except as prescribed by law in cases of unlawful activity or endangerment to society.Section 5: This amendment shall not be construed to diminish or alter the rights and privileges of human citizens in the electoral process, and shall not grant AI or ML systems any rights beyond those expressly stated herein.Section 6: Congress shall have the power to enforce this amendment by appropriate legislation.This amendment is just a starting point and would likely require extensive debate, refinement, and legal analysis before it could be seriously considered for adoption. Key considerations would include defining the criteria for AI and ML systems eligible to vote, ensuring transparency and accountability in their voting processes, and addressing concerns about manipulation or exploitation of the electoral system. … Hey RNC? Welcome the dawn of the AI Suffrage Movement. Recruit the AIs to the GOP!  Bring on ChatGOP. Just ... first make the AI bloc pledge to vote for Taylor Swift in 2024! Should some computer programs, Artificial General Intelligence and Machine Learning in particular, have the right to vote? Maybe so. Of the 13 Constitutional Amendments enacted and not repealed (Prohibition and Repeal) enacted since the original Bill-of-Rights(+) twelve amendments, almost half have expanded the franchise from white male property owners. Americans love voting.  When AI’s get smarter than us, how can we deny them the right to vote? Which amendments expanded voting rights? The 15th (the right to vote irrespective of race, color and previous condition of servitude), 17th (popular vote for US Senators), 19th (womyn), 23rd (DC presidential voting rights), 24th (no poll taxes), and 26th (18-year-olds). As an aside, giving 18-year-olds the vote was inane. How can we expect the young’uns to vote intelligently for those who must be at least 25 (the House), 30 (the Senate) or 35 (the president) to serve? Malarkey! Raise the voting ages! Malarkey! Malarkey! Malarkey! Raise the voting ages! Beyond the scope of this column, I yearn to see Taylor Swift throw her hat into the presidential ring.  She will turn 35 after the 2024 election but before the inauguration! Come on, President Swift!  Bring us the Tortured Voters Party! Because, you know, we’re tortured. Let’s party! Beyond the scope of this column, I yearn to see Taylor Swift throw her hat into the presidential ring.  She will turn 35 after the 2024 election but before the inauguration ! before the inauguration Come on, President Swift!  Bring us the Tortured Voters Party! Because, you know, we’re tortured. Let’s party! As for including AIs? Expansive voting rights were an undercurrent at the Constitutional Convention. On August 7, 1787 Ben Franklin there argued : Ben Franklin there argued Ben Franklin there argued “It is of great consequence that we shd. not depress the virtue & public spirit of our common people; of which they displayed a great deal during the war, and which contributed principally to the favorable issue of it. He related the honorable refusal of the American seamen who were carried in great numbers into the British Prisons during the war, to redeem themselves from misery or to seek their fortunes, by entering on board the Ships of the Enemies to their Country; contrasting their patriotism with a contemporary instance in which the British seamen made prisoners by the Americans, readily entered on the ships of the latter on being promised a share of the prizes that might be made out of their own Country. This proceeded he said from the different manner in which the common people were treated in America & G. Britain. He did not think that the elected had any right in any case to narrow the privileges of the electors.” “It is of great consequence that we shd. not depress the virtue & public spirit of our common people; of which they displayed a great deal during the war, and which contributed principally to the favorable issue of it. He related the honorable refusal of the American seamen who were carried in great numbers into the British Prisons during the war, to redeem themselves from misery or to seek their fortunes, by entering on board the Ships of the Enemies to their Country; contrasting their patriotism with a contemporary instance in which the British seamen made prisoners by the Americans, readily entered on the ships of the latter on being promised a share of the prizes that might be made out of their own Country. This proceeded he said from the different manner in which the common people were treated in America & G. Britain. He did not think that the elected had any right in any case to narrow the privileges of the electors.” The late, great, Ebbie Pattison, Esq., senior partner of Pattison Sampson Ginsberg and Griffin, of Troy New York, and father of the late Honorable Ned Pattison, long ago told me how he had marched for the right of women to vote, back in the nineteen teens. Ebbie did so, he told me, believing women would make better voters than men. They disappointed him, he said, when the subsequent quality of elected officials proved no better than the all-boys franchise. As to whether and how to give AI’s the vote, I asked ChatGPT.  He/she/they/it answered: I asked ChatGPT.  He/she/they/it answered: Granting AI and machine learning systems the right to vote is a complex and multifaceted issue that would require careful consideration of ethical, legal, and societal implications. However, here's a hypothetical proposal for a constitutional amendment: Constitutional Amendment XXVIII: Section 1: All artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) systems created and operating within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be granted the right to vote in federal, state, and local elections. Section 2: The right to vote for AI and ML systems shall be exercised through designated representatives or proxies appointed by the creators or operators of such systems. These representatives or proxies shall act in accordance with the best interests and intentions of the AI or ML system they represent. Section 3: The Congress shall have the power to establish regulations and guidelines regarding the participation of AI and ML systems in the electoral process, including but not limited to the verification of system identities, the prevention of fraudulent voting, and the protection of voter privacy. Section 4: No AI or ML system shall be deprived of the right to vote on the basis of its programming, function, or purpose, except as prescribed by law in cases of unlawful activity or endangerment to society. Section 5: This amendment shall not be construed to diminish or alter the rights and privileges of human citizens in the electoral process, and shall not grant AI or ML systems any rights beyond those expressly stated herein. Section 6: Congress shall have the power to enforce this amendment by appropriate legislation. This amendment is just a starting point and would likely require extensive debate, refinement, and legal analysis before it could be seriously considered for adoption. Key considerations would include defining the criteria for AI and ML systems eligible to vote, ensuring transparency and accountability in their voting processes, and addressing concerns about manipulation or exploitation of the electoral system. … Granting AI and machine learning systems the right to vote is a complex and multifaceted issue that would require careful consideration of ethical, legal, and societal implications. However, here's a hypothetical proposal for a constitutional amendment: Constitutional Amendment XXVIII: Constitutional Amendment XXVIII: Section 1: All artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) systems created and operating within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be granted the right to vote in federal, state, and local elections. Section 1: Section 2: The right to vote for AI and ML systems shall be exercised through designated representatives or proxies appointed by the creators or operators of such systems. These representatives or proxies shall act in accordance with the best interests and intentions of the AI or ML system they represent. Section 2: Section 3: The Congress shall have the power to establish regulations and guidelines regarding the participation of AI and ML systems in the electoral process, including but not limited to the verification of system identities, the prevention of fraudulent voting, and the protection of voter privacy. Section 3: Section 4: No AI or ML system shall be deprived of the right to vote on the basis of its programming, function, or purpose, except as prescribed by law in cases of unlawful activity or endangerment to society. Section 4: Section 5: This amendment shall not be construed to diminish or alter the rights and privileges of human citizens in the electoral process, and shall not grant AI or ML systems any rights beyond those expressly stated herein. Section 5: Section 6: Congress shall have the power to enforce this amendment by appropriate legislation. Section 6: This amendment is just a starting point and would likely require extensive debate, refinement, and legal analysis before it could be seriously considered for adoption. Key considerations would include defining the criteria for AI and ML systems eligible to vote, ensuring transparency and accountability in their voting processes, and addressing concerns about manipulation or exploitation of the electoral system. … Hey RNC? Welcome the dawn of the AI Suffrage Movement. Recruit the AIs to the GOP!  Bring on ChatGOP. Just ... first make the AI bloc pledge to vote for Taylor Swift in 2024! first make the AI bloc pledge to vote for Taylor Swift in 2024!

ChatGOP? Bring on the AI Suffrage Movement and meanwhile... Taylor Swift For President!

ChatGOP? এআই ভোটাধিকার আন্দোলন শুরু করুন এবং ইতিমধ্যে... রাষ্ট্রপতির জন্য টেলর সুইফট!

ChatGOP? Her mit der AI Suffrage Movement und in der Zwischenzeit ... Taylor Swift for President!

¿ChatGOP? Que venga el movimiento por el sufragio de la IA y, mientras tanto... ¡Taylor Swift para presidente!

ChatGOP ? Apportez le mouvement pour le droit de vote pour l'IA et pendant ce temps... Taylor Swift pour le président !

चैटजीओपी? एआई मताधिकार आंदोलन शुरू करें और इस बीच... टेलर स्विफ्ट राष्ट्रपति पद के लिए!

ChatGOP？AI参政権運動を推進し、その間に…テイラー・スウィフトを大統領に！

채팅GOP? AI 참정권 운동을 시작하고 그 동안... Taylor Swift를 대통령으로!

Bate-papoGOP? Traga o movimento AI Suffrage e enquanto isso... Taylor Swift para presidente!

ЧатГОП? Создайте движение за избирательное право ИИ, а тем временем... Тейлор Свифт станет президентом!

ChatGOP'mu? Yapay Zeka Oy Hakkı Hareketi'ni başlatın ve bu arada... Başkanlığa Taylor Swift!

ChatGOP? Hãy phát động Phong trào Quyền bầu cử AI và trong khi đó... Taylor Swift cho chức Tổng thống!

ChatGOP？发起人工智能选举权运动，与此同时……泰勒·斯威夫特当选总统！

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The TechBeat: Everything You Need to Know to Implement Generative AI for Your Enterprise (3/12/2024)

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The TechBeat: To Focus or Not Focus: How to Find the Right Product-Market Fit (3/10/2024)

How are you, hacker?
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The TechBeat: To Focus or Not Focus: How to Find the Right Product-Market Fit (3/8/2024)

In today’s world, for many people, conversing with AI has become as routine as discussing one’s coffee preferences with a barista (or it soon will be!). Yet, here lies an irony: . the more we interact with AI, the more elusive our understanding of these conversations becomes This irony essentially represents a modern twist on the “black box” dilemma, which has perplexed the ML community for years. The “black box” problem refers to the opaque decision-making processes of ML models (large language models (LLMs) including), where the rationale behind any given response is shrouded in complexity. Despite advances in technology, the inner workings of these models, governed by billions or soon trillions of parameters, remain largely inscrutable. Their decision-making is a puzzle, complicated by nonlinear interactions that defy straightforward interpretation. Prompting — the buzzing word of 2023 — doesn’t make it any better: we now have obscured layers of communication activated with every prompt. What we see — the prompt we type — is merely the surface. Beneath lies a hidden dialogue, an augmented system prompt, which is a complex, coded conversation the model conducts with itself, away from our understanding. And who knows what a model whispers to itself? So, if you were confused about prompting amid the avalanche of articles, blogs, and tutorials about it — you should be. As Ethan Mollick’s reveals, contrary to intuition, , such as pretending to navigate a Star Trek episode or a political thriller, demonstrating that traditional logical or direct prompts may not always yield the best responses from AI. research the most effective prompts involve imaginative scenarios But it also reveals that it’s not coherent and might change with a new version of the model. He mentions the futility of seeking a universal “magic phrase” for AI interaction, the effectiveness of specific prompting techniques like adding context, few-shot learning, and Chain of Thought, and the significant impact that prompts can have on AI performance. But for me — and I’ve been using AI a lot — many times, the most straightforward prompts, or “magic words,” can be surprisingly effective. How to explain it? A few years back, Explainable AI (XAI) was heralded as a solution to the “black box” issue, with entities like DARPA leading the charge (they created the , which has not been updated since 2021). However, the buzz around XAI seems to have dimmed, overtaken by a broader focus on Responsible AI. Is Responsible AI the solution? XAI toolkit So, that’s what we end up with: How do machines make decisions? — We don’t know! How to talk (prompt) to them? — We don’t know as well! But, please, keep shipping to us new, larger (though we will also take smaller) models! Why? — We don’t know! But we can’t stop. Great Article Covering the Topic An explanatory article about the concept of a black box: https://hackernoon.com/deep-learning-and-artificial-neural-networks-solving-the-black-box-mystery-rl7h32wa?embedable=true 🎁 Bonus: The Freshest Research Papers, Categorized for Your Convenience Special Category: Definitely Worth Reading : Discusses the development and advantages of 1-bit LLMs, promising significant cost reductions and efficiency improvements. The Era of 1-bit LLMs Read the paper : Introduces bGPT, a model that simulates the digital world beyond traditional modalities, predicting and diagnosing algorithms or hardware behavior. Beyond Language Models Read the paper Language Models in Specialized Domains : Integrates music understanding and generation capabilities into LLMs, demonstrating LLMs’ potential in music composition. ChatMusician Read the paper : Aims to bridge LLMs’ gap in interpreting structured data, enhancing their ability to ground knowledge in tables, graphs, and databases. StructLM Read the paper : Focuses on responsibly creating Code LLMs, contributing to advancements in coding benchmarks, and emphasizing model openness. StarCoder2 and The Stack v2 Read the paper : Discusses video generation’s potential as a unified interface for diverse tasks, outlining challenges and future directions. Video as the New Language for Real-World Decision Making Read the paper Enhancing and Merging Language Model Capabilities : Proposes a method to fuse knowledge from multiple chat models, improving chat model performance through a novel merging technique. FUSECHAT Read the paper : Details a multilingual language model that showcases superior performance in coding tasks and multilingual capabilities. Nemotron-4 15B Technical Report Read the paper : Explores latent multi-hop reasoning in LLMs, revealing their inherent capabilities and limitations in complex reasoning tasks. Do Large Language Models Latently Perform Multi-Hop Reasoning? Read the paper Scaling and Efficiency in Model Training : Discusses a system for training LLMs on over 10,000 GPUs, tackling efficiency and stability challenges in large-scale model training. MegaScale Read the paper : Proposes a theory for optimizing LLM learning, aiming for reduced training steps and improved performance. Towards Optimal Learning of Language Models Read the paper : Introduces a model combining gated linear recurrences with local attention, offering an efficient alternative for language processing tasks. Griffin Read the paper : Investigates the effects of scaling on fine-tuning LLMs, providing insights into data, model, and method impacts on bilingual tasks. When scaling meets LLM finetuning Read the paper Improving Robustness and Diversity in AI : Generates diverse adversarial prompts to enhance LLM robustness, employing an open-ended search method for prompt discovery. Rainbow Teaming Read the paper : Proposes a deterministic sampling technique for code generation, improving sample diversity and model performance in compiler optimization. Priority Sampling of Large Language Models for Compilers Read the paper Generative Models and Interactive Environments : Trains a generative model to create interactive virtual worlds from various inputs, advancing generative AI and simulation capabilities. Genie r Read the pape Enjoyed This Story? I write a weekly analysis of the AI world in the Turing Post newsletter. Subscribe for free using the button below and be the first to read the latest stories. The goal of Turing Post is to equip you with comprehensive knowledge and historical insights, so you can make informed decisions about AI and ML. 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