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Safe Passages

Today's gamers expect levels that are not only visually stunning but also richly interactive and immersive. How can we reach these expectations as developers? Let’s talk about modern level design. In essence, level design refers to creating levels, stages, or missions within a game. But this description barely scratches the surface of what level design embodies. It's not merely about placing objects, enemies, or environmental artwork. It's a more profound and intricate process – it's about crafting experiences. Imagine level design as the art of shaping the player's adventure. It’s about constructing the narrative pathway they walk through, not just in terms of the physical space within the game but also in how they experience the story being told. The level is where the game's story, mechanics, and art converge to create a memorable experience. Consider a level in a as a chapter in a book. Each chapter has a beginning, where players are introduced to new elements or challenges. There's a middle where these elements are explored and interacted with, and an ending, often culminating in a significant challenge or a pivotal narrative moment. The level designer's job is to make this journey as engaging and coherent as possible. game But it's not just about linear progression. A well-designed level offers players choices and paths to explore while guiding them toward the intended narrative or gameplay goals. It's about creating an environment that feels alive and responsive to the player's actions. Consider how game levels like The Legend of Zelda or Dark Souls are designed. They aren't just spaces to traverse; they're puzzles to solve, stories to unravel, and worlds to immerse oneself in. The goal is to avoid extremes – neither too easy nor frustratingly hard. The challenge, akin to waves, should undulate, ensuring player engagement and accomplishment. You need to define your approach before you start level design placement. And here, you have several options that you can learn from famous examples. Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment. A prime example is the Resident Evil series, particularly Resident Evil 4. This game subtly adjusts the difficulty based on the player's performance. If the player dies frequently, the game reduces the number of enemies in subsequent attempts. Conversely, if the player is breezing through levels, it subtly ramps up the challenge. This dynamic adjustment keeps the game engaging for players of varying skill levels without breaking immersion. Progressive Challenge Scaling. The Super Mario Bros. levels are meticulously designed to introduce challenges progressively. Early levels are more straightforward, teaching the player basic mechanics. As the game progresses, levels become more complex, combining these mechanics in challenging ways. The infamous Water Levels or the introduction of more complex enemies like Hammer Bros. exemplify this scaling, which adds variety and escalating challenges while remaining fair and engaging. A classic example can be seen in Portal and Portal 2. These games excel in gradually introducing players to new mechanics and combining them increasingly complexly. Early levels are simple, focusing on understanding the essential use of the portal gun. As players progress, levels demand more sophisticated uses of the portals, spatial reasoning, and timing. This steady increase in complexity helps players develop their skills naturally without feeling overwhelmed. Safe Spaces and Respite. Dark Souls, a game known for its difficulty, skillfully balances challenge with rest. Between its notoriously tricky sections, bonfires are acting as safe spaces. These allow players to recuperate, reinforcing a sense of progression and achievement. It's a rhythmic balance of tension and relief, preventing frustration. Games like Bloodborne implement a risk-versus-reward system to balance difficulty. Engaging in high-risk combat scenarios can lead to greater rewards. This system encourages players to push their limits and allows them to play it safely. It's a balance that motivates players to improve and engage more deeply with the game mechanics. Player-Driven Difficulty. Games like The Elder Scrolls: Skyrim offers another approach. Here, the world is open, and players can choose their paths. They might wander into a high-level area and face tough challenges or stay in lower-level areas to build their skills and confidence. This player-driven difficulty allows individuals to tailor their experiences to their comfort level. The Mass Effect series offers settings that range from narrative-focused, where combat is easier, to hardcore modes that significantly ramp up combat challenges. This approach respects player choice and caters to a broader audience, from those seeking a story to those desiring intense gameplay. Narrative as a Difficulty Balancer. The Last of Us series uses narrative elements to balance gameplay difficulty. Intense combat sequences are interspersed with quieter, story-driven sections, where players learn more about the characters and the world. This ebb and flow maintains engagement without overwhelming the player. Balancing difficulty is not just about enemy placement or the number of obstacles. It's about understanding the player's journey through the game. It involves crafting a narrative flow where challenges rise and fall, maintaining interest and providing a sense of accomplishment. This approach requires a deep understanding of game mechanics, player psychology, and storytelling. Games like Celeste offer frequent checkpoints, acknowledging the game's severe difficulty and allowing players to quickly retry challenging sections, reducing frustration while maintaining the challenge. Implementing checkpoint and save systems can significantly affect the perception of difficulty. Difficulty in level design isn't just about combat or enemies. The environment itself can present challenges. The environment plays a key role in The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild. Weather, terrain, and physics create situations where players must think and adapt. For example, climbing a mountain during rain is more challenging than in clear weather. This adds a layer of strategic decision-making based on the environment. Developers often release beta versions or updates based on player experiences. In modern game development, player feedback is crucial for balancing difficulty. Fortnite is an example of continuous updates and player feedback shaping the game's balance, keeping the gameplay fresh and appropriately challenging. Balancing difficulty in level design is an ongoing dialogue between the designer and the player. It's about understanding not just the mechanics of the game but the people who play it. Every player is different, and their experience can vary widely. The goal of the level designer is to craft a challenging, rewarding, and, most importantly, enjoyable journey for a wide range of players. Environmental art. Level design cannot exist without other elements. And you, as a level designer, should focus on another part of game design that will be at your disposal - Environmental art. Environment art is what gives life to the game's world. It's about the aesthetics – the textures, the lighting, the 3D models. These elements create the visual appeal and immersion of the game. The environment artists are like the painters and sculptors of the video game world, carefully crafting every visual detail to create a believable, engaging, and often beautiful environment for players to explore. A game with exceptional environment art can be awe-inspiring. Think of the stunning vistas in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt or the intricate, dystopian world of Bioshock Infinite. The environment art sets the tone and atmosphere in these games, contributing significantly to the overall gaming experience. Level design should continue the environment design. It should highlight the setting and maintain the mood. Only then will the level design be considered good when it performs both practical and aesthetic functions. Let's shift our focus to level design, about the Level design is the structural foundation of the game’s world. It's about creating spaces that facilitate gameplay, guide the player's journey, present challenges, and help progress the narrative. gameplay experience within these environments. A level designer must consider how players interact with the environment, move through space, and utilize the game's mechanics. It's about creating a flow within the game, using the environment to create a path for the player, and strategically placing elements like enemies, obstacles, and rewards. For instance, the intricate level designs in Dark Souls are not just about aesthetics. They are meticulously crafted to challenge players, often forcing them to be cautious and observant. The levels are designed to create a sense of dread and anticipation, with traps and enemies positioned to surprise and challenge the player. Moreover, level design often involves creating an intuitive and navigable space. It's about leading the player without making it obvious that they are being led. This is where level design overlaps with environmental storytelling. The placement of objects, the architecture of the space, and the progression through the environment can all tell a story in subtle ways. An example is Half-Life, where the environment and level design work together to guide the player, tell a story, and create an immersive experience without requiring extensive dialogue or cutscenes. The game uses visual cues, level layout, and environmental details to lead the player and reveal the narrative. Intricate-level design goes beyond the basic layout of environments; it involves crafting spaces that are functional for gameplay and rich in narrative depth, player engagement, and creativity. Multi-layered Levels. Within a limited space, when we want to make it larger than it is, we use one basic approach: Multi-layered Levels. One of my favorite games with this approach is Dishonored. In Dishonored, the levels are designed with multiple layers and pathways, offering players a variety of approaches to complete their objectives. The game's levels are complex, with interconnected areas encouraging exploration and experimentation. Players can sneak through buildings, traverse rooftops, or find hidden passages, all adding depth and replayability to the game. It works nicely here, mainly because it fits the main mechanic of the teleports. A professional-level designer will always use every piece of space effectively, coordinating it with the mechanics and ideas. But what if I want something else, something different? Let’s return to the Dark Souls series, renowned for its interconnected-level design. The game world is like a massive, intertwined puzzle where areas loop back on themselves, creating a sense of discovery and surprise. This design makes the world feel interconnected and rewards exploration and memorization, a vital aspect of the game's challenge and allure. In BioShock, the underwater city of Rapture is not just a backdrop but an integral part of the game's story. The environment tells its story through audio logs, visual cues, and architecture. The Art Deco design, the dilapidated structures, and the propaganda posters combine to immerse the player in the game's dystopian world. The Breath of the Wild reimagines open-world design by creating a dynamic environment that interacts with the player's actions. The game world responds to player choices and actions, whether chopping down trees to create bridges or using the game's physics engine to solve puzzles. This dynamic interaction makes the environment a key player in the game's design. In The Last of Us Part, the environment reflects the story's emotional tone, from abandoned homes that tell stories of the inhabitants' final moments to the overgrown ruins that signify the world's post-apocalyptic state. The level design is a narrative tool, enhancing the story's emotional impact. As you see, level design can’t be independent. It needs to be a part of all other elements. You should play with it based on your ideas and the mood of your game. Now that we know the basic level design approaches, let's talk about their principles. One of the most crucial is a . Each level in a game should serve a clear and distinct purpose. This could be advancing the story, introducing new gameplay mechanics, presenting a unique challenge, or combining these elements. Each level is designed to advance the story in games like Uncharted or Tomb Raider. Players journey through different environments, each revealing a new story chapter. The level design aligns with the narrative arc, ensuring that the environment and its challenges reflect and enhance the unfolding story. Portal excels in introducing and gradually expanding upon its core mechanic – the portal gun. Early levels are designed to teach players the basics of portal traversal. As the game progresses, levels become more complex, integrating new elements like momentum and light bridges, requiring players to think creatively and apply what they've learned in new ways. Celeste is a brilliant example of levels designed to provide specific challenges. Each chapter introduces new elements - wind, moving platforms, or hostile creatures - each adding a unique twist to the game's core platforming mechanics. The levels are purposefully designed to test the player’s skills and adaptability. purpose The level design combines mechanics, story, and exploration seamlessly. The purpose of a level should be evident to the player, whether it's understood from the level's design, its place in the game's world, or its contribution to the overarching story. A level with a clear purpose provides direction and motivation, guiding the player through the game's journey. Moreover, purpose-driven level design ensures that each part of the game feels necessary and engaging. It avoids the pitfalls of filler content, where levels exist merely to extend playtime without adding meaningful experiences. Another fundamental principle in level design is . motivating player movement A well-designed level not only facilitates but also encourages player exploration and progression. It's about using the environment to subtly guide players towards objectives and discoveries, ensuring a seamless and engaging experience. For this, we can use different techniques. For instance, in Journey, the distant mountain is a constant visual goal for players. In Dark Souls, the level design frequently employs grand structures or unique landscapes as points of interest, guiding players across its interconnected world. . Skyrim is an excellent example, where players are motivated to explore through the promise of hidden dungeons, rare artifacts, and unexpected encounters. The level design rewards curiosity, making exploration a core part of the player's experience. In Half-Life, for example, levels are designed to lead players along a specific path without making it obvious. The game uses lighting, architecture, and environmental storytelling to guide players, ensuring they are never lost but still feel in control of their journey. A classic technique is the use of visual cues or landmarks. Encouraging exploration is key Effective pathfinding is crucial. In The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild, the interactive elements like destructible objects, climbable surfaces, and physics-based puzzles engage players and encourage them to interact with the world around them, often leading to discoveries. Interactivity within the environment can serve as a strong motivator. Narrative elements can also guide player movement. In BioShock, the narrative unfolds through the environment, with audio logs, signage, and environmental changes guiding players through Rapture. The story creates a sense of urgency and curiosity, driving players to explore further. It requires a deep understanding of human psychology and player behavior. The goal is to create an organic and inviting world where every path, obstacle, and item feels purposefully placed to guide the player's journey. I adore level design. It looks so amazing when Resident Evil uses narrow corridors, sudden open areas, and blind corners to induce suspense and surprise. The level design manipulates spatial elements to evoke emotions, keeping players on edge. Or when in Journey, developers use of color, light, and shadow further accentuates paths and points of interest. In games, the arrangement of enemies, the architecture of the ruins, and the placement of items all tell a story, providing context and depth to the game world. In Hollow Knight, we can find intricate, interconnected level designs that encourage players to explore, backtrack, and discover new paths as they acquire new abilities. The layout of the levels becomes a puzzle for the player to solve. You can find more information about Spatial Communication in Level Design in this . video Action Games and Shooters. I talked about more calm genres like RPG and story-based adventures, but we had a few extra things when we discussed action games and shooters. In this type of game, we have a specific aspect of level design that's particularly crucial. And this is a . cover placement Cover placement is essential for creating strategic depth in tactical shooters like Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege. The environment offers various cover options, each presenting different advantages and vulnerabilities. This encourages players to think tactically about their position and the position of their enemies. Effective cover placement also enhances player movement. In Gears of War, the cover is not only for protection but also for maneuvering and flanking. The game's 'roadie run' mechanic, combined with the cover system, allows players to quickly move between covers, creating dynamic firefights and opportunities for strategic positioning. The placement of cover can transform an environment into a tactical playground. Call of Duty games, for instance, design levels with a mix of high and low covers, open areas, and choke points. This variety allows for different combat styles, from long-range engagements to close-quarters battles, making each encounter unique. Introducing dynamic or destructible cover adds another layer of strategy. In the Battlefield series, the destructible environments mean that cover is not always permanent, forcing players to adapt their tactics as the battlefield evolves. Cover placement is also crucial in how AI enemies engage the player. In Uncharted, enemies use cover effectively, flanking and suppressing the player, which requires strategic thinking and quick reflexes to overcome. It's essential to balance cover with . Too much cover can make a level feel cramped and restrict movement, while too little can lead to unfair challenges. Games like Halo strike this balance, offering open arenas with strategically placed cover, allowing for ranged battles and close-up engagements. open spaces Conclusion. In summary, motivating player movement is an art form in itself. It combines aesthetics, psychology, and gameplay mechanics to create a world players want to explore and engage in. It's what transforms a game from a series of tasks into a compelling journey.

Designing a Video Game: Principles and Rules of Modern Level Design

CHIMNEYS AND DRAFT

Steam, Its Generation and Use by Babcock & Wilcox Company, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . UTILIZATION OF WASTE HEAT here UTILIZATION OF WASTE HEAT While it has been long recognized that the reclamation of heat from the waste gases of various industrial processes would lead to a great saving in fuel and labor, the problem has, until recently, never been given the attention that its importance merits. It is true that installations have been made for the utilization of such gases, but in general they have consisted simply in the placing of a given amount of boiler heating surface in the path of the gases and those making the installations have been satisfied with whatever power has been generated, no attention being given to the proportioning of either the heating surface or the gas passages to meet the peculiar characteristics of the particular class of waste gas available. The Babcock & Wilcox Co. has recently gone into the question of the utilization of what has been known as waste heat with great thoroughness, and the results secured by their installations with practically all operations yielding such gases are eminently successful. The power that can be obtained from waste gases depends upon their temperature and weight, and both of these factors vary widely in different commercial operations. gives a list of certain processes yielding waste gases the heat of which is available for the generation of steam and the approximate temperature of such gases. It should be understood that the temperatures in are the average of the range of a complete cycle of the operation and that the minimum and maximum temperatures may vary largely from the figures given. Table 52 the table The maximum available horse power that may be secured from such gases is represented by the formula: The initial temperature and the weight or volume of gas will depend, as stated, upon the process involved. The exit temperature will depend, to a certain extent, upon the temperature of the entering gases, but will be governed mainly by the efficiency of the heating surfaces installed for the absorption of the heat. Where the temperature of the gas available is high, approaching that found in direct fired boiler practice, the problem is simple and the question of design of boiler becomes one of adapting the proper amount of heating surface to the volume of gas to be handled. With such temperatures, and a volume of gas available approximately in accordance with that found in direct fired boiler practice, a standard boiler or one but slightly modified from the standard will serve the purpose satisfactorily. As the temperatures become lower, however, the problem is more difficult and the departure from standard practice more radical. With low temperature gases, to obtain a heat transfer rate at all comparable with that found in ordinary boiler practice, the lack of temperature must be offset by an added velocity of the gases in their passage over the heating surfaces. In securing the velocity necessary to give a heat transfer rate with low temperature gases sufficient to make the installation of waste heat boilers show a reasonable return on the investment, the frictional resistance to the gases through the boiler becomes greatly in excess of what would be considered good practice in direct fired boilers. Practically all operations yielding waste gases require that nothing be done in the way of impairing the draft at the furnace outlet, as this might interfere with the operation of the primary furnace. The installation of a waste heat boiler, therefore, very frequently necessitates providing sufficient mechanical draft to overcome the frictional resistance of the gases through the heating surfaces and still leave ample draft available to meet the maximum requirements of the primary furnace. Where the temperature and volume of the gases are in line with what are found in ordinary direct fired practice, the area of the gas passages may be practically standard. With the volume of gas known, the draft loss through the heating surfaces may be obtained from experimental data and this additional draft requirement met by the installation of a stack sufficient to take care of this draft loss and still leave draft enough for operating the furnace at its maximum capacity. Where the temperatures are low, the added frictional resistance will ordinarily be too great to allow the draft required to be secured by additional stack height and the installation of a fan is necessary. Such a fan should be capable of handling the maximum volume of gas that the furnace may produce, and of maintaining a suction equivalent to the maximum frictional resistance of such volume through the boiler plus the maximum draft requirement at the furnace outlet. Stacks and fans for this class of work should be figured on the safe side. Where a fan installation is necessary, the loss of draft in the fan connections should be considered, and in figuring conservatively it should be remembered that a fan of ample size may be run as economically as a smaller fan, whereas the smaller fan, if overloaded, is operated with a large loss in efficiency. In practically any installation where low temperature gas requires a fan to give the proper heat transfer from the gases, the cost of the fan and of the energy to drive it will be more than offset by the added power from the boiler secured by its use. Furthermore, the installation of such a fan will frequently increase the capacity of the industrial furnace, in connection with which the waste heat boilers are installed. In proportioning heating surfaces and gas passages for waste heat work there are so many factors bearing directly on what constitutes the proper installation that it is impossible to set any fixed rules. Each individual installation must be considered by itself as well as the particular characteristics of the gases available, such as their temperature and volume, and the presence of dust or tar-like substances, and all must be given the proper weight in the determination of the design of the heating surfaces and gas passages for the specific set of conditions. Fig. 31 shows the relation of gas temperatures, heating surface passed over and work done by such surface for use in cases where the temperatures approach those found in direct fired practice and where the volume of gas available is approximately that with which one horse power may be developed on 10 square feet of heating surface. The curve assumes what may be considered standard gas passage areas, and further, that there is no heat absorbed by direct radiation from the fire. Experiments have shown that this curve is very nearly correct for the conditions assumed. Such being the case, its application in waste heat work is clear. Decreasing or increasing the velocity of the gases over the heating surfaces from what might be considered normal direct fired practice, that is, decreasing or increasing the frictional loss through the boiler will increase or decrease the amount of heating surface necessary to develop one boiler horse power. The application of Fig. 31 to such use may best be seen by an example: Assume the entering gas temperatures to be 1470 degrees and that the gases are cooled to 570 degrees. From the curve, under what are assumed to be standard conditions, the gases have passed over 19 per cent of the heating surface by the time they have been cooled 1470 degrees. When cooled to 570 degrees, 78 per cent of the heating surface has been passed over. The work done in relation to the standard of the curve is represented by (1470 - 570) ÷ (2500 - 500) = 45 per cent. (These figures may also be read from the curve in terms of the per cent of the work done by different parts of the heating surfaces.) That is, 78 per cent - 19 per cent = 59 per cent of the standard heating surface has done 45 per cent of the standard amount of work. 59 ÷ 45 = 1.31, which is the ratio of surface of the assumed case to the standard case of the curve. Expressed differently, there will be required 13.1 square feet of heating surface in the assumed case to develop a horse power as against 10 square feet in the standard case. The gases available for this class of work are almost invariably very dirty. It is essential for the successful operation of waste-heat boilers that ample provision be made for cleaning by the installation of access doors through which all parts of the setting may be reached. In many instances, such as waste-heat boilers set in connection with cement kilns, settling chambers are provided for the dust before the gases reach the boiler. By-passes for the gases should in all cases be provided to enable the boiler to be shut down for cleaning and repairs without interfering with the operation of the primary furnace. All connections from furnace to boilers should be kept tight to prevent the infiltration of air, with the consequent lowering of gas temperatures. Auxiliary gas or coal fired grates must be installed to insure continuity in the operation of the boiler where the operation of the furnace is intermittent or where it may be desired to run the boiler with the primary furnace not in operation. Such grates are sometimes used continuously where the gases available are not sufficient to develop the required horse power from a given amount of heating surface. Fear has at times been expressed that certain waste gases, such as those containing sulphur fumes, will have a deleterious action on the heating surface of the boiler. This feature has been carefully watched, however, and from plants in operation it would appear that in the absence of water or steam leaks within the setting, there is no such harmful action. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Babcock & Wilcox Company (2007). Steam, Its Generation and Use. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22657/pg22657-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

UTILIZATION OF WASTE HEAT

Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889, by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . GIBRALTAR. here GIBRALTAR. The point or rock known as Gibraltar is a promontory two and one-half miles long and from a quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide. It rises abruptly from the sandy shore to a height at its highest point of 1,408 ft. It is composed of gray limestone, honeycombed with caves and subterranean passages, some of which contain most beautiful stalactites in the form of massive pillars. Gibraltar is emphatically a fortress, and in some respects its fortifications are unique. On the eastern side the rock needs no defense beyond its own precipitous cliffs, and in all other directions it has been rendered practically impregnable. Besides a sea wall extending at intervals round the western base of the rock, and strengthened by curtains and bastions and three formidable forts, there are batteries in all available positions from the sea wall up to the summit, 1,350 feet above the sea, and a remarkable series of galleries has been hewn out of the solid face of the rock toward the north and northwest. These galleries have an aggregate length of between two and three miles, and their breadth is sufficient to let a carriage pass. Portholes are cut at intervals of twelve yards, so contrived that the gunners are safe from the shot of any possible assailants. At the end of one of the galleries hollowed out in a prominent part of the cliff is St. George's Hall, 50 feet long by 85 feet wide, in which the governor was accustomed to give fetes. Alterations, extensions, and improvements are continually taking place in the defensive system, and new guns of the most formidable sort are gradually displacing or supplementing the old fashioned ordnance. The whole population of Gibraltar, whether civil or military, is subjected to certain stringent rules. For even a day's sojourn the alien must obtain a pass from the town major, and if he wish to remain longer, a consul or householder must become security for his good behavior. Licenses of residence are granted only for short periods—ten, fifteen, or twenty days—but they can be renewed if occasion require. Military officers may introduce a stranger for thirty days. A special permit is necessary if the visitor wishes to sketch. Though the town of Gibraltar may be said to date from the fourteenth century, it has preserved very little architectural evidence of its antiquity. Rebuilt on an enlarged and improved plan after its almost complete destruction during the great siege, it is still, on the whole, a mean-looking town, with narrow streets and lanes and an incongruous mixture of houses after the English and the Spanish types. As a proprietor may at any moment be called upon to give up his house and ground at the demand of the military authorities, he is naturally deterred from spending his money on substantial or sumptuous erections. The area of the town is about one hundred acres. Gibraltar was known to the Greek and Roman geographers as Calpe or Alybe, the two names being probably corruptions of the same local (perhaps Phenician) word. The eminence on the African coast near Ceuta, which bears the modern English name of Apes' Hill, was then designated Abyla; and Calpe and Abyla, at least according to an ancient and widely current interpretation, formed the renowned pillars of Hercules (Herculis columnæ), which for centuries were the limits of enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the Mediterranean world. The strategic importance of the rock appears to have been first discovered by the Moors, who, when they crossed over from Africa in the eighth century, selected it as the site of a fortress. From their leader, Tarik Ibn Zeyad, it was called Gebel Tarik or Tarik's Hill; and, though the name had a competitor in Gebel af Futah, or Hill of the Entrance, it gradually gained acceptance, and still remains sufficiently recognizable in the corrupted form of the present day. The first siege of the rock was in 1309, when it was taken by Alonzo Perez de Guzman for Ferdinand IV. of Spain, who, in order to attract inhabitants to the spot, offered an asylum to swindlers, thieves, and murderers, and promised to levy no taxes on the import or export of goods. The attack of Ismail Ben Ferez, in 1315 (second siege), was frustrated; but in 1333 Vasco Paez de Meira, having allowed the fortifications and garrison to decay, was obliged to capitulate to Mahomet IV. (third siege). Alphonso's attempts to recover possession (fourth siege) were futile, though pertinacious and heroic, and he was obliged to content himself with a tribute for the rock from Abdul Melek of Granada; but after his successful attack on Algeciras in 1344 he was encouraged to try his fortune again at Gibraltar. In 1349 he invested the rock, but the siege (fifth siege) was brought to an untimely close by his death from the plague in February, 1350. The next or sixth siege resulted simply in the transference of the coveted position from the hands of the King of Morocco to those of Yussef III. of Granada; and the seventh, undertaken by the Spanish Count of Niebla, Enrico de Guzman, proved fatal to the besieger and his forces. In 1462, however, success attended the efforts of Alphonso de Arcos (eighth siege), and in August the rock passed once more under Christian sway. The Duke of Medina Sidonia, a powerful grandee who had assisted in its capture, was anxious to get possession of the fortress, and though Henry IV. at first managed to maintain the claims of the crown, the duke ultimately made good his ambition by force of arms (ninth siege), and in 1469 the king was constrained to declare his son and his heirs perpetual governors of Gibraltar. In 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella made the second duke Marquis of Gibraltar, and in 1492 the third duke, Don Juan, was reluctantly allowed to retain the fortress. At length, in 1501, Garcilaso de la Vega was ordered to take possession of the place in the king's name, and it was formally incorporated with the domains of the crown. After Ferdinand and Isabella were both dead the duke, Don Juan, tried in 1506 to recover possession, and added a tenth to the list of sieges. Thirty-four years afterward the garrison had to defend itself against a much more formidable attack (eleventh siege)—the pirates of Algiers having determined to recover the rock for Mahomet and themselves. The conflict was severe, but resulted in the repulse of the besiegers. After this the Spaniards made great efforts to strengthen the place, and they succeeded so well that throughout Europe Gibraltar was regarded as impregnable. In the course of the war of the Spanish succession, however, it was taken by a combined English and Dutch fleet under Sir George Rooke, assisted by a body of troops under Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt. The captors had ostensibly fought in the interests of Charles Archduke of Austria (afterward Charles III.), but, though his sovereignty over the rock was proclaimed on July 24, 1704, Sir George Rooke on his own responsibility caused the English flag to be hoisted, and took possession in name of Queen Anne. It is hardly to the honor of England that it was both unprincipled enough to sanction and ratify the occupation and ungrateful enough to leave unrewarded the general to whose unscrupulous patriotism the acquisition was due. The Spaniards keenly felt the injustice done to them, and the inhabitants of the town of Gibraltar in great numbers abandoned their homes rather than recognize the authority of the invaders. In October, 1704, the rock was invested by sea and land; but the Spanish ships were dispersed by Sir John Leake, and the Marquis of Villadarias fared so ill with his forces that he was replaced by Marshal Tesse, who was at length compelled to raise the siege in April, 1705. During the next twenty years there were endless negotiations for the peaceful surrender of the fortress, and in 1726 the Spaniards again appealed to arms. But the Conde de la Torres, who had the chief command, succeeded no better than his predecessors, and the defense of the garrison under General Clayton and the Earl of Portmore was so effectual that the armistice of June 23 practically put a close to the siege, though two years elapsed before the general pacification ensued. The most memorable siege of Gibraltar, indeed one of the most memorable of all sieges, was that which it sustained from the combined land and sea forces of France and Spain during the years 1779-1783. The grand attack on the place was made on the 13th September, 1782, and all the resources of power and science were exhausted by the assailants in the fruitless attempt. On the side of the sea they brought to bear against the fortress forty-six sail of the line and a countless fleet of gun and mortar boats. But their chief hope lay in the floating batteries planned by D'Arcon, an eminent French engineer, and built at the cost of half a million sterling. They were so constructed as to be impenetrable by the red hot shot which it was foreseen the garrison would employ; and such hopes were entertained of their efficiency that they were styled invincible. The Count D'Artois (afterward Charles X.) hastened from Paris to witness the capture of the place. He arrived in time to see the total destruction of the floating batteries and a considerable portion of the combined fleet by the English fire. Despite this disaster, however, the siege continued till brought to a close by the general pacification, February 2, 1783. The history of the four eventful years' siege is fully detailed in the work of Drinkwater, who himself took part in the defense, and in the life of its gallant defender Sir George Augustus Eliott, afterward Lord Heathfield, whose military skill and moral courage place him among the best soldiers and noblest men whom Europe produced during the 18th century. Since 1783 the history of Gibraltar has been comparatively uneventful. In the beginning of 1801 there were rumors of a Spanish and French attack, but the Spanish ships were defeated off Algeciras in June by Admiral Saumarez. Improvements in the fortifications, maintenance of military discipline, and legislation in regard to trade and smuggling are the principal matters of recent interest. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2004). Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16972/pg16972-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

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