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Transcendence Volume I, Book 1: Introduction

Discussing the Impact of Our Exoplanet Study: How This Impacts Everything

This paper is available on arxiv under CC 4.0 license. Authors: (1) Andrew Ridden-Harper, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University & Las Cumbres Observatory; (2) Stevanus K. Nugroho, Astrobiology Center & Japan & National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; (3) Laura Flagg, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University; (4) Ray Jayawardhana, Department of Astronomy, Cornell University; (5) Jake D. Turner, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University & NHFP Sagan Fellow; (6) Ernst de Mooij, Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics & Queen’s University Belfast; (7) Ryan MacDonald, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute; (8) Emily Deibert, David A. Dunlap Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Toronto & Gemini Observatory, NSF’s NOIRLab; (9) Motohide Tamura, Dunlap Institute for Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Toronto (10) Takayuki Kotani, Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Astrobiology Center & National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; (11) Teruyuki Hirano, Astrobiology Center, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan & Department of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies; (12) Masayuki Kuzuhara, Las Cumbres Observatory & Astrobiology Center; (13) Masashi Omiya, Las Cumbres Observatory & Astrobiology Center; (14) Nobuhiko Kusakabe, Las Cumbres Observatory & Astrobiology Center. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Observation Data Reduction and Processing Model Spectra Cross-Correlation Method Results Clouds and Hazes Implications for JWST Conclusion and Acknowledgement Appendix & References ABSTRACT Terrestrial exoplanets orbiting M-dwarf stars are promising targets for transmission spectroscopy with existing or near-future instrumentation. The atmospheric composition of such rocky planets remains an open question, especially given the high X-ray and ultraviolet flux from their host M dwarfs that can drive atmospheric escape. The 1.3 R⊕ exoplanet GJ 486b (Teq ∼ 700 K), orbiting an M3.5 star, is expected to have one of the strongest transmission spectroscopy signals among known terrestrial exoplanets. We observed three transits of GJ 486b using three different high-resolution spectrographs: IRD on Subaru, IGRINS on Gemini-South, and SPIRou on the Canada-France-Hawai’i Telescope. We searched for atmospheric absorption from a wide variety of molecular species via the cross-correlation method, but did not detect any robust atmospheric signals. Nevertheless, our observations are sufficiently sensitive to rule out several clear atmospheric scenarios via injection and recovery tests, and extend comparative exoplanetology into the terrestrial regime. Our results suggest that GJ 486b does not possess a clear H2/He-dominated atmosphere, nor a clear 100% water-vapor atmosphere. Other secondary atmospheres with high mean molecular weights or H2/He-dominated atmospheres with clouds remain possible. Our findings provide further evidence suggesting that terrestrial planets orbiting M-dwarf stars may experience significant atmospheric loss. : Exoplanet atmospheres (487) — Planetary atmospheres (1244) — Exoplanets (498) — Exoplanet atmospheric composition (2021) Keywords 1. INTRODUCTION Exoplanets that transit M-dwarf stars produce relatively deep transits due to their high planet-star radius ratios. Consequently, it may be possible to detect biosignatures in the atmospheres of terrestrial exoplanets with existing or near-future instrumentation (e.g., Snellen et al. 2013; Wunderlich et al. 2019). However, the long-term habitability of such planets depends crucially on the stability of their atmospheres, which are subject to high X-ray + extreme UV (XUV) emissions during the pre-main-sequence phase of their M-dwarf hosts (e.g., Shkolnik & Barman 2014; Peacock et al. 2020) as well as flare events (e.g., Neves Ribeiro do Amaral et al. 2022) that can drive atmospheric escape (e.g., Vidal-Madjar et al. 2003; Bourrier et al. 2017a; Airapetian et al. 2017). Terrestrial exoplanets are expected to exhibit a rich diversity in atmospheric compositions. Exoplanets with Rp < 1.4 R⊕ and orbital periods < 100 days likely form as gas-rich sub-Neptunes that subsequently lose their primordial atmospheres due to photoevaporation (Rogers & Owen 2021). The amount of primordial atmosphere retained depends on several factors, such as their host star’s spectral energy distribution and activity levels, along with how much gas they accrete during formation (e.g., Bolmont et al. 2017; Owen et al. 2020). Should the primordial hydrogen-dominated atmosphere be lost, a secondary atmosphere may be retained. The composition of secondary atmospheres depends on a variety of processes, including interior outgassing, impact delivery, erosion, atmosphere-surface exchange, weathering, and volatile sequestration (e.g., Rogers et al. 2011). Driven by these processes, hot terrestrial planets (T & 1500 K) are predicted to have atmospheres containing atoms and ions, such as Na or Ca+, produced by surface vaporization (Schaefer & Fegley 2009) — though other hydrogen- or nitrogen-rich compositions are possible (Miguel 2019). However, cooler terrestrial planets are likely rich in molecular species, such as H2O, CO2, CO, O2, C2H2, and CH4 (e.g., Ramirez & Kaltenegger 2014; Madhusudhan et al. 2016; Kite & Schaefer 2021). Given the range of theoretical possibilities, observational constraints on the composition of terrestrial exoplanet atmospheres are crucially needed. While there have been several attempts to detect the atmospheres of a few terrestrial exoplanets, these have only yielded constraints from nondetections. For example, 55 Cancri e is a 1.9 R⊕ exoplanet with a temperature of approximately 2400 K due to its 17 hr orbit around its G8V host star (Morris et al. 2021). Hubble Space Telescope observations suggest that 55 Cancri e may possess a thick atmosphere (Tsiaras et al. 2016). However, phase curve observations with the Spitzer space telescope (Demory et al. 2016) and ground-based high-resolution transmission spectroscopy point toward 55 Cancri e not possessing a thick atmosphere or having no atmosphere at all (Ridden-Harper et al. 2016; Esteves et al. 2017; Jindal et al. 2020; Deibert et al. 2021a; Zhang et al. 2021). A similar result was found for the cooler 1.3 R⊕ exoplanet LHS 3844 b, which has an equilibrium temperature of 800 K and orbits an M5 host star (Vanderspek et al. 2019). Kreidberg et al. (2019) observed the phase curve of LHS 3844 b with the Spitzer space telescope and found that thick atmospheres with surface pressures greater than 10 bar could be ruled out, while less massive atmospheres would be susceptible to erosion by the stellar wind. Additionally, they found that a bare rock model fit their data well. Another candidate for atmospheric characterization that orbits an M-dwarf is GJ 1132b, which has a radius, mass, and equilibrium temperature of 1.1 R⊕, 1.7 M⊕, and 580 K, respectively (Berta-Thompson et al. 2015). Using transit observations from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), Swain et al. (2021) inferred that GJ 1132b possesses a H/He-rich atmosphere with large-amplitude spectral features. However, using the same HST data, Libby-Roberts et al. (2022) and Mugnai et al. (2021) independently found a featureless transmission spectrum, possibly indicating an atmosphere with a high mean molecular weight (MMW), a high-altitude aerosol layer, or a near-total lack of an atmosphere. These contrasting results highlight the difficulty of characterizing the atmospheres of small planets, even with space-based instrumentation. Comprehensive searches for the atmospheres of the seven approximately Earth-sized planets that transit the M8V star TRAPPIST-1 have also been carried out. These transit observations with the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes all point toward the absence of extended hydrogen-dominated atmospheres. However, denser, potentially habitable atmospheres are consistent with the observational limits for some TRAPPIST-1 planets (de Wit et al. 2016; Bourrier et al. 2017b,a; de Wit et al. 2018; Zhang et al. 2018; Wakeford et al. 2019; Gressier et al. 2022). GJ 486b[1] is a 1.3 R⊕ and 2.8 M⊕ exoplanet with an equilibrium temperature of about 700 K, an M3.5 V host star of J-band magnitude 7.2, and an orbital period of 1.5 days (Trifonov et al. 2021). These system properties make GJ 486b well suited to atmospheric characterization with transmission spectroscopy, as reflected by it having one of the largest transmission spectroscopy metrics (as defined by Kempton et al. 2018) of all known terrestrial planets (Trifonov et al. 2021). Therefore, GJ 486b is an ideal observational target to inform our understanding of terrestrial planets around M-dwarf stars. Previous studies have surmised that a wide range of atmospheric compositions are possible for GJ 486b. Caballero et al. (2022) refined GJ 486b’s mass and radius, and presented a suite of interior and atmospheric models. They showed that possible atmospheres include: (i) a H/He-dominated atmosphere with solar abundances; (ii) a H/He atmosphere with enhanced metallicity (e.g., 100x solar abundances); (iii) a H2O-dominated atmosphere; (iv) a CO2-dominated atmosphere; or (v) bare rock with a tenuous atmosphere, possibly containing Na. Geochemical models based on initial conditions representative of a range of possible planets suggest that a H2O-dominated atmosphere is the most likely outcome for a 3 M⊕ planet like GJ 486b (Ortenzi et al. 2020). However, carbonaceous chondrite outgassing measurements suggest that CO2-dominated atmospheres could also evolve on terrestrial planets (Thompson et al. 2021). Differentiating between these scenarios requires spectroscopic observations. Molecular species such as those expected to be in GJ 486b’s atmosphere produce dense forests of spectral lines that can be individually resolved with high-resolution spectroscopy. The signals from these lines can be combined, even if they are individually hidden in the noise, by cross-correlating the data with a template containing the molecular lines (e.g., Snellen et al. 2010; Birkby 2018). This powerful technique has facilitated the detection of species such as H2O, CO, HCN, CH4, NH3, and C2H2 in the transmission spectra of hot Jupiters (e.g., Giacobbe et al. 2021). As high-resolution spectroscopy probes line cores, which contain information about the upper (low-pressure) regions of exoplanet atmospheres, it is highly complementary to low-resolution observations from telescopes such as the JWST, which probe higher pressures (Brogi & Line 2019). JWST is scheduled to observe two transits and eclipses of GJ 486b in programs GO 1981[2] (P.I.: K. Stevenson) and GO 1743[3] (P. I.: M. Mansfield), respectively. Here, we present the first high-resolution transmission spectroscopy observations of GJ 486b. We use three transits to constrain GJ 486b’s atmospheric composition. In what follows, in Sections 2 and 3 we describe our observations and data reduction approach. Section 4 describes our model spectra, while Section 5 describes our cross-correlation methodology. Section 6 presents our results, while Section 8 discusses the implications of our results for the upcoming JWST observations. Finally, Section 9 offers concluding remarks. [1] Alternative names include Wolf 437b and TOI 1827b. [2] program-information.html?id=1981 https://www.stsci.edu/jwst/science-execution/ [3] program-information.html?id=1743 https://www.stsci.edu/jwst/science-execution/

High-Resolution Transmission Spectroscopy of the Terrestrial Exoplanet GJ 486b: Abstract & Intro

This paper is available on arxiv under CC 4.0 license. Authors: (1) Andrew Ridden-Harper, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University & Las Cumbres Observatory; (2) Stevanus K. Nugroho, Astrobiology Center & Japan & National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; (3) Laura Flagg, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University; (4) Ray Jayawardhana, Department of Astronomy, Cornell University; (5) Jake D. Turner, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute, Cornell University & NHFP Sagan Fellow; (6) Ernst de Mooij, Astrophysics Research Centre, School of Mathematics and Physics & Queen’s University Belfast; (7) Ryan MacDonald, Department of Astronomy and Carl Sagan Institute; (8) Emily Deibert, David A. Dunlap Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Toronto & Gemini Observatory, NSF’s NOIRLab; (9) Motohide Tamura, Dunlap Institute for Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Toronto (10) Takayuki Kotani, Department of Astronomy, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Astrobiology Center & National Astronomical Observatory of Japan; (11) Teruyuki Hirano, Astrobiology Center, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan & Department of Astronomical Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies; (12) Masayuki Kuzuhara, Las Cumbres Observatory & Astrobiology Center; (13) Masashi Omiya, Las Cumbres Observatory & Astrobiology Center; (14) Nobuhiko Kusakabe, Las Cumbres Observatory & Astrobiology Center. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Observation Data Reduction and Processing Model Spectra Cross-Correlation Method Results Clouds and Hazes Implications for JWST Conclusion and Acknowledgement Appendix & References 9. CONCLUSION In this study, we searched for the atmosphere of the 1.3 R⊕ exoplanet GJ 486b using high-resolution transmission spectroscopy. Our resultant atmospheric constraints additionally offer an improved understanding of the possible atmospheres for terrestrial planets orbiting M-dwarf stars. We observed three transits of GJ 486b with the spectrographs IRD, IGRINS, and SPIRou, and searched for absorption by its atmosphere with the high-resolution cross-correlation method. We searched for C2H2, CH4, CO, CO2, FeH, H2O, HCN, H2S, K, Na, NH3, PH3, SiO, TiO, and VO, but did not detect any robust atmospheric signals. Our best potential detection was H2O at the 3σ level, seen only in the IGRINS data set. However, this potential signal is likely an artifact of imperfectly removed H2O lines in the stellar spectrum. We suggest that it may be possible to improve the suppression of these stellar lines by using 3D models of stellar convection, as shown by Chiavassa & Brogi (2019). Nevertheless, we derived informative upper limits on the abundances of many chemical species by performing signal injection and recovery tests. Our recovery tests allow us to rule out a clear H2/He-dominated atmosphere with solar molecular abundances to a confidence of >5σ, while also ruling out a clear 100% water atmosphere to a confidence of 3σ. Since a water-dominated atmosphere is often considered to be the most likely possibility for 3 M⊕ planets like GJ 486b (e.g., Ortenzi et al. 2020), our results could have important implications for planetary interior models. We also investigated the implications of our findings for the upcoming JWST transit observations of GJ 486b. We found that these observations will be especially sensitive to the presence of CO2, but with weaker sensitivity to H2O, highlighting the complementary capabilities of high-resolution and JWST observations. In summary, our results indicate that GJ 486b does not possess a cloud-free H/He-dominated atmosphere that has solar abundances. However, it may possess a secondary atmosphere with high mean molecular weight or a H2/He-dominated atmosphere with clouds. Our findings provide further evidence suggesting that terrestrial planets orbiting M-dwarf stars experience significant atmospheric loss. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We thank the anonymous reviewer for constructive comments. We are also grateful to Hajime Kawahara for helpful suggestions. This research is based [in part] on data collected at the Subaru Telescope, which is operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan. We are honored and grateful for the opportunity of observing the Universe from Maunakea, which has cultural, historical, and natural significance in Hawaii. This work used the Immersion Grating Infrared Spectrometer (IGRINS) that was developed under a collaboration between the University of Texas at Austin and the Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (KASI) with the financial support of the Mt. Cuba Astronomical Foundation, of the US National Science Foundation under grants AST-1229522 and AST-1702267, of the McDonald Observatory of the University of Texas at Austin, of the Korean GMT Project of KASI, and of the Gemini Observatory. Based on observations obtained at the international Gemini Observatory, a program of NSF’s NOIRLab, which is managed by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation on behalf of the Gemini Observatory partnership: the National Science Foundation (United States), the National Research Council (Canada), Agencia Nacional de Investigaci´on y Desarrollo (Chile), Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnolog´ıa e Innovaci´on (Argentina), Minist´erio da Ciˆencia, Tecnologia, Inova¸c˜oes e Comunica¸c˜oes (Brazil), and Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute (Republic of Korea). Based on observations obtained at the CanadaFrance-Hawaii Telescope (CFHT), which is operated from the summit of Maunakea by the National Research Council of Canada, the Institut National des Sciences de l’Univers of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique of France, and the University of Hawaii. The observations at the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope were performed with care and respect from the summit of Maunakea which is a significant cultural and historic site. Based on observations obtained with SPIRou, an international project led by Institut de Recherche en Astrophysique et Plan´etologie, Toulouse, France. This research has made use of the Extrasolar Planet Encyclopaedia, NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Bibliographic Services, and the NASA Exoplanet Archive, which is operated by the California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under the Exoplanet Exploration Program. M.T. is supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant Nos. 18H05442, 15H02063, and 22000005. S. K. N. is supported by JSPS KAKENHI grant No. 22K14092. J.D.T’s support for this work was provided by NASA through the NASA Hubble Fellowship grant #HSTHF2-51495.001-A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5- 26555. : 8.2 m Subaru telescope (IRD), 8.1 m Gemini-South telescope (IGRINS), 3.6 m Canada France Hawai’i Telescope (SPIRou) Facilities : Astropy (Astropy Collaboration et al. 2013, 2018); SciPy (Virtanen et al. 2020); NumPy (Harris et al. 2020); petitRADTRANS (Molli`ere et al. 2019); SpectRes (Carnall 2017). Software

High-Resolution Transmission Spectroscopy: Conclusion and Acknowledgement

This paper is under CC 4.0 license. available on arxiv Authors: (1) Prajwal Niraula, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences; (2) Julien de Wit, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences; (3) Benjamin V. Rackham, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences; (4) Elsa Ducrot, Astrobiology Research Unit, University of Li`ege; (5) Artem Burdanov, Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences; (6) Ian J. M. Crossfield, Kansas University Department of Physics and Astronomy; (7) Valerie Van Grootel´, Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, University of Li`ege; (8) Catriona Murray, 5Cavendish Laboratory; (9) Lionel J. Garcia, Astrobiology Research Unit, University of Li`ege; (10) Roi Alonso, Instituto de Astrof´ısica de Canarias & Dpto. de Astrof´ısica, Universidad de La Laguna; (11) Corey Beard, Department of Physics & Astronomy, The University of California; (12) Yilen Gomez Maqueo Chew, Instituto de Astronom´ıa, Universidad Nacional Aut´onoma de M´exico, Ciudad Universitaria; (13) Laetitia Delrez, Astrobiology Research Unit, University of Li`ege, Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, University of Li`ege & 0Observatoire de lUniversit´e de Gen`eve; (14) Brice-Olivier Demory, University of Bern, Center for Space and Habitability; (15) Benjamin J. Fulton, NASA Exoplanet Science Institute/Caltech-IPAC; (16) Michael Gillon, Astrobiology Research Unit, University of Li`ege; (17) Maximilian N. Gunther, Department of Physics, and Kavli Institute for Astrophysics and Space Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; (18) Andrew W. Howard, California Institute of Technology; (19) Howard Issacson, Department of Astronomy, University of California Berkeley; (20) Emmanuel Jehin, Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, University of Li`ege; (21) Peter P. Pedersen, Cavendish Laboratory; (22) Francisco J. Pozuelos, Astrobiology Research Unit, University of Li`ege & Space Sciences, Technologies and Astrophysics Research (STAR) Institute, University of Li`ege; (23) Didier Queloz, Cavendish Laboratory; (24) Rafael Rebolo-Lopez, Instituto de Astrof´ısica de Canarias & Dpto. de Astrof´ısica, Universidad de La Laguna'; (25) Sairam Lalitha, School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Birmingham; (26) Daniel Sebastian, Astrobiology Research Unit, University of Li`ege (27) Samantha Thompson, Cavendish Laboratory; (28) Amaury H.M.J. Triaud, School of Physics & Astronomy, University of Birmingham. Table of Links Abstract & Introduction Observation Analysis and Validation Future Prospects & References ABSTRACT We report on the discovery of a transiting Earth-sized (0.95R⊕) planet around an M3.5 dwarf star at 57 pc, K2-315b. The planet has a period of ∼3.14 days, i.e. ∼π, with an instellation of 7.45 S⊕. The detection was made using publicly available data from K2’s Campaign 15. We observed three additional transits with SPECULOOS Southern and Northern Observatories, and a stellar spectrum from Keck/HIRES, which allowed us to validate the planetary nature of the signal. The confirmed planet is well suited for comparative terrestrial exoplanetology. While exoplanets transiting ultracool dwarfs present the best opportunity for atmospheric studies of terrestrial exoplanets with the James Webb Space Telescope, those orbiting mid-M dwarfs within 100 pc such as K2-315b will become increasingly accessible with the next generation of observatories. stars: individual (2MASS J15120519-2006307, EPIC 249631677, TIC 70298662, K2-315b) – planets and satellites: detection Keywords: 1. INTRODUCTION The redesigned Kepler mission, K2 (Howell et al. 2014), has been a success by adding almost 400 confirmed planets to the 2,348 discovered by the original mission[1]. Building upon Kepler (Borucki et al. 2010), K2 expanded the search of planets around brighter stars, covered a wider region of sky along the ecliptic, and studied a variety of astronomical objects . Together, these endeavors have revolutionized the field of exoplanetary science by quadrupling the number of exoplanets known at the time, while K2 in particular has led to exciting discoveries, such as disintegrating planetesimals around the white dwarf WD-1145 (Vanderburg et al. 2015), multi-planet systems around bright stars like GJ 9827 (K2-135) (Niraula et al. 2017; Rodriguez et al. 2018), and resonant chains of planets like the K2-138 system with five planets (Christiansen et al. 2018). Space-based platforms such as Kepler can provide high-quality continuous monitoring of targets above the Earth’s atmosphere. The simultaneous photometric monitoring of tens of thousands of stars enables finding rare configurations (e.g., WD-1145) and answering science questions regarding planetary populations that are more statistical in nature such as how unique our own Solar System is, or what are the most common type of planets (e.g. Fressin et al. 2013; Fulton et al. 2017). Ground-based facilities, on the other hand, often detect fewer planets while operating at a lower cost. These planets frequently exhibit larger signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) in various metrics (e.g., transmission), thereby allowing for these planets to be characterized further. One such example is the TRAPPIST-1 planetary system (Gillon et al. 2016, 2017), discovered by the TRAPPISTUltra Cool Dwarf Transiting Survey, a prototype survey for the SPECULOOS Survey (Gillon et al. 2013). The goal of the SPECULOOS Survey is to explore the nearest ultracool dwarfs (Teff <3000 K) for transits of rocky planets (Burdanov et al. 2018; Delrez et al. 2018; Jehin et al. 2018; Sebastian et al. in prep.). Although few systems are expected (Delrez et al. 2018; Sebastian et al. in prep.), their impact on the field will be significant as they should provide most of the temperate Earthsized exoplanets amenable for atmospheric studies with the next generation of observatories such as JWST (e.g. Gillon et al. 2020). Beyond the SPECULOOS Survey, which monitors nearby late-M dwarfs for terrestrial planets, the SPECULOOS telescopes have been used to study the planetary population around mid- and late-M dwarfs. In that context, SPECULOOS facilities have been involved in following up and validating planetary candidates, notably from TESS (G¨unther et al. 2019; Kostov et al. 2019; Quinn et al. 2019). Next to confirming planetary candidates that cross detection thresholds, we have started to investigate weaker signals. For this work, we revisited K2 data, a mission which ended only in 2019. We reanalyzed the light curves of stars with Teff < 3500 K, a Kepler magnitude < 15, and a log g > 4.5. While these criteria were motivated particularly to look for planets around ultra-cool dwarfs, they were relaxed in order to allow room for errors in the stellar properties and improve completeness of the analysis. Among the 1,213 stars fitting these criteria, EPIC 249631677 presented the strongest periodic transit-like signal. In this paper, we report the discovery of an Earthsized K2 planet in a close-in orbit around EPIC 249631677. The paper is structured as follow; observations (Section 2), analysis and validation (Section 3), and the discussion in regards to future prospects for characterization (Section 4). In this paper, we report the discovery of an Earthsized K2 planet in a close-in orbit around EPIC 249631677. The paper is structured as follow; observations (Section 2), analysis and validation (Section 3), and the discussion in regards to future prospects for characterization (Section 4). [1] https://exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu

π Earth: a 3.14-day Earth-sized Planet from K2's Kitchen Served Warm: Abstract & Intro

Lasers by Hal Hellman, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . COMMUNICATIONS here COMMUNICATIONS Future deep space missions are expected to require extremely high data transmission rates (on the order of a million bits per second) to relay the huge quantities of scientific and engineering information gathered by the spacecraft. Higher data rates are necessary to increase both the total capacity and the speed of transmission. By comparison, the Mariner-4 spacecraft that sent back TV pictures of Mars had a data rate of only eight bits per second—a hundred thousand times too small for future missions. The use of lasers would mean that results could be transmitted to earth in seconds instead of the 8 hours it took for the photos to be sent from Mariner-4. One of the problems to be solved in using lasers for deep space communication, oddly enough, is that of pointing accuracy. Since the beam of laser energy is narrow, it would be possible for the radiation to miss the earth altogether and be lost entirely unless the laser were pointed at the receiver with extreme precision. Aiming a gun at a target 50 yards away is one thing; aiming a laser from an unmanned spacecraft 100 million miles away is quite another. It is believed, however, that present techniques can cope with the problem. Another peculiarity of laser communication is that it will probably be accomplished faster and more readily in space than here on earth. Powerful though laser light may be, it is light and is therefore impeded to some extent by our atmosphere even under good conditions. Data transmissions of 20 and 30 miles have already been accomplished in good weather with lasers. But if you have ever tried to force a searchlight beam or shine automobile headlights through heavy fog, rain, or snow, you will appreciate the magnitude of the problem under these conditions. The use of infrared frequencies helps to some extent, since infrared is somewhat more penetrating, but the poor-weather problem is a serious one. A possible solution is the use of “light pipes”, similar to the wave guides already in use for certain microwave applications over short distances. But as often happens, new developments create new needs; how, for example, can we get the laser beam to stay centered in the pipe and follow curves? A series of closely spaced lenses, about 1000 per mile, probably would accomplish this, but too much light would be lost by scattering from the many lens surfaces. Scientists are experimenting with a new kind of “lens”, one that uses variations in the density of gases to focus and guide the beam automatically. Since there are no surfaces in the path of the light beam, and since the gas is transparent and free of turbulence, the laser beam is not appreciably weakened or scattered as it travels through the pipe. Figure 31 Laser light beam being guided through a “light pipe” by a gas “lens”. Heating coil (lower left) or mixture of gases (lower right) are two possible ways of maintaining proper density gradient in the gas. shows how the gas focusing principle might be used to guide a beam through a curving pipe. The shading represents the density of the gas. Several means have been developed to keep the gas denser in the center than around the outside. When the pipe curves, the light beam starts moving off the axis of the pipe. The gas then acts like a prism, deflecting the light beam in the direction of the curvature of the “prism”. Figure 31 In communication between distant space and earth, a light pipe might be a little cumbersome; hence it may prove necessary to set up an intermediate orbiting relay station that will, particularly in cases of poor weather, intercept the incoming laser beam and convert it to radio frequencies that can penetrate our atmosphere with greater reliability. Powering space-borne lasers will, of course, be a problem. Indeed one of the major unsolved problems in production of spacecraft and long-term satellites is the provision of an adequate supply of power. Fuel cells and solar cells have helped but do not give the whole answer. One other approach has already been developed: a sun-pumped laser. Sunlight focused onto the side of the laser (see ) provides the pumping power, enabling the device to put out 1 watt of continuous infrared radiation, enough for special space applications. Descendents of this device could produce visible light if this is deemed desirable. Figure 32 Another approach, using , is even more intriguing and may have greater consequences. Chemical lasers will derive their energy from their internal chemistry rather than from the outside. A mixture of two chemicals may be all that is needed to initiate laser action aboard a spacecraft or satellite. (Chemical lasers also offer the promise of even greater concentrations of power than have been achieved heretofore, which may make them useful in plasma research.) chemical lasers With all these possibilities, it may still be that spacecraft will need more power than is available on board. The narrow beam of the laser offers one more fascinating possibility, especially in the case of satellites relatively near earth. The light of a laser might actually be used to beam energy to a receiver, either for immediate use or storage. It would then become possible to “refuel” satellites at will, giving them much greater capabilities. If available laser power is great enough, laser beams might even be used to push satellites back into their proper orbits when they begin to wander off course, as they almost invariably do after a while. Figure 32 Artist’s rendering of sun-pumped laser as it would operate in space. The sun’s rays are collected by a parabolic reflector and are focused on the laser’s surface by two cylindrical mirrors. Sun Parabolic Collector Hyperbolic-cylindric secondary mirror Semi-circular-cylindric tertiary mirror Laser beam About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Hal Hellman (2021). Laser. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022 https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/65512/pg65512-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

Future deep space missions are expected to require extremely high data transmission rates

Space exploration has captivated the human imagination for centuries. It has helped to drive us to venture beyond our living planet to uncover the mysteries of the cosmos. Today, we are in the modern era with the fascinating world of From the first space mission (which was once a matter of imagination) to the present reality of humans walking on the lunar surface and satellites orbiting distant planets, the advancement of technology is undeniable. Mars, in particular, has become a focus of exploration with robotic missions like the Curiosity rover, Perseverance rover, Ingenuity helicopter, and Zhurong rover actively operating on its surface and sending data to Earth. They are equipped with ) with the capability of analyzing the samples. space exploration. machine learning(ML Missions and explorations are not just limited to Mars, other planets, and their natural satellites. Researchers are still working hard to uncover more of this universe’s mysteries. Some interesting strides, in recent times, are as follows: The first-ever detection of , gravitational waves First ever image of a , Black Hole The deepest, sharpest infrared view of from NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, and many more. the universe to date For these achievements, AI and ML have assisted to some extent but advanced use in space missions is yet to be realized. AI The revelation of water activities on Mars has further boosted our curiosity about the possibility of life beyond Earth. Despite the high cost and technological challenges, the idea of sending human missions to Mars and other planets is a tantalizing prospect, and this is where AI could play a pivotal role in shaping the future of space exploration. This article aims to dive into various aspects related to space exploration in this context. The views and opinions expressed in this article are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any space agency or organization. Disclaimer: Here are some of the ways that AI is being used in space today: AI is being used to develop autonomous navigation systems for spacecraft. These systems can navigate spacecraft without human intervention so they can reduce the risk of accidents and improve efficiency. AI-powered navigation systems are very useful for guiding spacecraft and rovers with precision. For example; NASA's Mars rovers Curiosity and Perseverance. These rovers utilize AI algorithms to process images, analyze terrain, and autonomously plan routes to avoid obstacles while efficiently reaching their intended destinations. In addition, NASA developed an system to map the moon virtually in 2018. 🚀Autonomous navigation: AI-enabled navigation AI is being used to manage resources in space like fuel and food. AI-powered systems can optimize the use of these resources which can help to extend the lifespan of missions and reduce costs. For example, some satellites need regular power consumption to operate correctly whereas AI is playing a crucial role to manage the power and other resources. 🚀Resource management: AI is being used to analyze data from space missions. This data can be used to learn more about the universe, identify potential hazards, and improve the design of future missions. The vast amount of data collected from telescopes, satellites, and space probes need advanced AI tools for efficient analysis. Machine Learning(ML) algorithms assist in sifting through massive datasets to identify patterns and scientifically relevant information. It can accelerate the process of discovering new celestial bodies, understanding cosmic phenomena, and uncovering insights into the universe's evolution. For example, NASA uses as a helpful assistant for creating Earth observation satellite systems. 🚀Data analysis: Daphne Currently, AI processes a large amount of images or data every minute. It assists to predict the planet’s surfaces or geological conditions. In our living planet’s cases, AI assists to forecast the weather or other space-related images by analyzing the captured images. 🚀Enhances satellite imagery: NASA to facilitate the discovery of exoplanets through the Kepler Telescope. One notable example is the use of a convolutional neural network (CNN) called AstroNet K2. This AI system was designed to analyze signals from the Kepler Telescope. By training AstroNet K2 to an accuracy rate of 98%, NASA successfully identified new exoplanets like Kepler 80g and Kepler 90i. 🚀Exoplanet discovery: utilized AI AI is being used to assess the risks associated with space missions. This can help to identify potential problems and develop mitigation strategies. In the environment of space, equipment failures can have very tough consequences. AI-driven predictive maintenance helps detect potential faults by analyzing sensor data and predicting when components might fail. This capability enables astronauts and mission control to take preemptive actions to prevent catastrophic failures and ensure the safety of both crewed and uncrewed missions. 🚀Risk assessment, Fault Detection, and Mitigation: You know space missions are generally a very complicated and difficult process that involves various steps and technologies so a single mistake might cause significant losses. AI is being used to make decisions about space missions to ensure that missions are conducted safely and efficiently so that it reduces the risks caused due to human error. 🚀Decision-making: These are just a few of the ways that AI is being used in space today. As AI continues to evolve, we can expect to see even more innovative and groundbreaking applications of this technology in the years to come. AI for Space Exploration: Current Situation : NASA's AI Exploration Initiative NASA is actively engaged in a multi-year effort known as the AI Exploration Initiative. This initiative's primary objective is to advance and implement AI technologies within the realm of space exploration. It centers around four key focal points: autonomous systems, data science, human-AI collaboration, and risk evaluation. ESA’s Program for Artificial Intelligence in Space Exploration (ARTES): The ARTES program, initiated by the European Space Agency constitutes a series of activities dedicated to the development and application of AI technologies in the context of space exploration. This program concentrates on four principal domains: autonomous systems, robotics, data analysis, and risk assessment. : The Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC) Project The DSAC initiative is in the process of creating an atomic clock designed for forthcoming space missions. This advanced clock relies on AI-driven algorithms to minimize its size and power prerequisites. : Crew Interactive Mobile Companion (CIMON) CIMON or Crew Interactive Mobile Companion is a unique robot on the International Space Station (ISS) that helps astronauts. Shaped like a head, it can hear and see, and it's powered by AI. Its job includes finding things, keeping track of supplies, recording experiments, taking videos, and snapping pictures. Created by Airbus and the German Aerospace Center, CIMON makes life and work easier for astronauts in space. These activities are just a glimpse of the numerous ongoing activities in AI and ML for space exploration however, there are so many other discoveries and activities in the related field. Potential Applications of AI in Space There is no doubt that AI and ML exhibit an expansive array of use cases expected to shape the future. Here are a few examples that illustrate how the world of space exploration stands to reap benefits from the integration of AI technologies. 🌌Exploration of the solar system: AI-powered spacecraft could be used to explore our solar system more efficiently and safely. These spacecraft could be programmed to autonomously navigate to different destinations, collect data, and avoid hazards by employing machine learning algorithms as well. 🌌Search for extraterrestrial life: Have you ever asked a question yourself “Are we alone in the universe?”What would happen if human beings have got the clue of aliens’ lives on other planets outsides of the solar system? Definitely, it would be even more interesting to analyze their lifestyles and impacts. So, AI could be used to search for extraterrestrial life. AI-powered systems could analyze data from space telescopes and other sensors to identify potential signs of life. 🌌Development of new space technologies: AI could be used to develop new space technologies (such as new propulsion systems and new ways to generate power in space). These technologies could help us to explore space more deeply and to develop new ways to live and work in space. 🌌Health management on space missions: During the space mission, it can be challenging to establish instant communication with Earth-based experts to address health-related issues in real time.AI is expected to play a crucial role to tackle unpredicted circumstances created during the mission, particularly in the case of deep space exploration. In the future, advanced AI could have the capability to process complex datasets instantly with a higher percentage of accuracy and would be able to initiate "self-driving labs" for automated health-related experiments. 🌌Creation of a spacefaring civilization: AI could help us to create a spacefaring civilization. AI-powered systems could help us to build and maintain space stations, mine asteroids, and to travel to other planets. The future of AI in space is full of possibilities. As AI is evolving, we can expect to see even more innovative and groundbreaking applications of this technology in the future. AI could help us to achieve our goals of exploring the universe and becoming a spacefaring civilization. 🌌GPS in Space: has been working on an AI application like GPS in space that would make it easy to explore different planets like  Titan, Mars, and others. So, the lab is an exceptional collaborative platform that brings together researchers, data scientists, and domain experts to tackle some of the most pressing challenges in space exploration using cutting-edge AI and ML techniques. (FDL) NASA Frontier Development Lab 🌌Interstellar Travel and Communication: AI will play a crucial role in interstellar travel where communication delays due to vast distances from Earth. Autonomous AI systems could handle complex decisions without real-time input from Earth by allowing spacecraft to adapt to changing conditions and navigate distant stars while maintaining contact with mission control on a delayed basis. 🌌Swarm Robotics for Celestial Exploration: Swarm robotics (where multiple small robots collaborate to accomplish tasks) could revolutionize celestial exploration. Imagine fleets of small AI-driven rovers roaming across faraway planets, working together to thoroughly study the surroundings. These groups of rovers could quickly map landscapes, run a wide range of experiments, and greatly improve the likelihood of uncovering incredible findings. 🌌Cognitive Assistants for Astronauts: AI-based cognitive assistants could become essential companions for astronauts during long-duration missions. These assistants could provide real-time information, offer solutions to technical problems, and even provide emotional support. By monitoring astronaut health and behaviour, cognitive assistants could alert medical staff to potential issues and help maintain crew well-being. These examples provide just a glimpse of the potential ways AI and ML can be used in the future. There are even more opportunities waiting to be explored. The tested contributions of AI have shown a promising future for space exploration by offering incredible benefits that are hard to imagine now. Challenges and Ethical Considerations While AI has the potential to revolutionize space exploration, there are also some challenges and ethical considerations that need to be addressed. One challenge is that AI systems can be complex and difficult to understand which can make it difficult to ensure that these systems are safe and reliable. Avoiding the potential for AI biases in decision-making, and establishing protocols for AI-aided interstellar communication. Another challenge is that AI systems can be biased which can lead to discrimination against certain groups of people or objects. It is also important to consider the ethical implications of using AI in space. For example, should we use AI to develop autonomous weapons systems? These are just some of the challenges and ethical considerations that need to be addressed as we continue to develop and use AI in space. It is important to have a thoughtful and open discussion about these issues so that we can ensure that AI is used for good and not for harm. Conclusion The integration of AI technologies into space exploration has already transformed how we explore and understand the universe. As we dive deeper into space, AI will undoubtedly become a crucial tool by; enhancing the capabilities of spacecraft, enabling autonomous decision-making, and revolutionizing our approach to celestial exploration. The implementation of AI into modern space exploration has redefined our ability to uncover celestial mysteries from AI-equipped Mars rovers advancing our understanding of distant planets to AI-assisted analysis of cosmic phenomena like gravitational waves and Black Holes. As we look to the future, AI holds promise in autonomous navigation, resource management, data analysis, exoplanet discovery, risk assessment, and more. Initiatives like NASA's AI Exploration Initiative and ESA's ARTES program underscore our commitment to leveraging AI's potential in space. However, challenges surrounding AI reliability, interpretability, bias, and ethical implications must be addressed collaboratively to ensure AI enhances our cosmic exploration responsibly and ethically. The future of AI in space holds the promise of new discoveries, improved efficiency, and a deeper connection to the cosmos. The journey has just begun, and the possibilities are limitless.

AI and the Future of Space Exploration

An Adventure Amidst the Industrial Revolution

Greetings from the land of sleep-deprived partners! As I sit here at my desk, yawning like a baby hippo and trying to keep my eyelids from turning into curtains, I can't help but wonder: Is there anything your genius mind can't do? I come to you today with a simple plea, a request that could reform the way we sleep and potentially save countless relationships from the clutches of nocturnal cacophony. My appeal though simple is significant: can you please, pretty please, create a noise-cancelling device specifically designed for snoring partners? You see, , I am not just an average human; I am a sleep-deprived hero trying to navigate the treacherous waters of slumber next to a snoring partner. The nightly struggle is real, and it's time we address it with your ingenious touch. Mr. Musk Imagine this Musk: a cozy bedroom, dimly lit, the scent of lavender wafting through the air, and two souls lying side by side, ready to embrace the sweet caress of dreams. But as soon as the lights go out, a racket of cosmic proportions erupts. No, it's not the sound of a rocket leaving the launchpad at SpaceX station; it's the snoring symphony composed by my significant other. Now, don't get me wrong. I love my partner to the moon and back (pun intended), but when it comes to their snoring, even the most patient among us can feel like they're orbiting the brink of insanity. I've tried earplugs, noise-cancellation headphones, and even blasting heavy metal into my eardrums (which only led to some groovy, headbanging dreams). But alas, none of these solutions are as elegant and effective as what your genius mind could concoct. Picture this device, dear Master of Innovation: sleek, comfortable, and designed to fit snugly around the ears. As soon as it detects the seismic rumblings of snoring, it springs into action. Advanced algorithms analyze the snore frequency, amplitude, and duration, while microphones pick up other environmental sounds. Then, like magic, the device generates an anti-snore sound wave, perfectly out of phase with the original snore, effectively canceling it out. Here’s a potential for marital bliss! The tranquillity of uninterrupted sleep! Partners across the globe would celebrate the advent of such a device. Countless couples would be saved from sleeping in separate rooms, escaping the tragic fate of drifting apart due to incompatible nighttime noise levels. Of course, there may be some comical mishaps along the way. But imagine the marketing possibilities, Elon! You could call it "SnoreX" or "SleepX," and it would fly off the shelves faster than your Roadster. I can already see the testimonials pouring in, praising you as the saviour of sleep-deprived relationships everywhere. I must admit, Mr. Musk, I've had my fair share of waggish encounters with snoring partners. From recording their snorts and playing them back in the morning, only to be met with disbelieving stares, to waking them up accidentally while trying to stifle their snores – it's been quite the adventure. Now, I know you're a busy man, Elon, juggling more projects than I have fingers to count them on, but I genuinely believe this snore-cancelling device could be a game-changer. It might not be as awe-inspiring as relocating humanity to Mars or exploring the cosmos, but it would be an everyday marvel, silently mending relationships and spreading happiness, one night of peaceful sleep at a time. So, dear , if you're reading this, take a moment to ponder the plight of snoring partners worldwide. Let your imagination run wild, unleash your creative brilliance, and gift us with the ultimate solution to noise pollution. Together, we can make bedtime great again! Elon With hope, humour, and a dash of sleep deprivation, A fervent supporter in need of quiet nights.

Dear Elon Musk, Can You Create a Noise-Cancelling Device for Snoring Partners?

I woke up this morning thinking about Armageddon and how fragile we are as a planet if an asteroid comes our way. I am also intrigued by exploring space and the technologies available from my desk. I will show you how to combine two APIs to be alerted via SMS when an asteroid is passing nearby (relatively speaking). NASA OpenAPI The first resource is . You could use tons of great interfaces for your ideas, but the one that interests me, in this case, is NASA's open API portal NeoWs (Near Earth Object Web Service). Unlock After reading about the API, the first step in your journey is to obtain an API key. This is done by filling your details into a form and providing a valid e-mail. Please note that most APIs have an API limit of . They are suitable for tests and personal benefit but not for production-ready usage 1000 requests per hour Explore Let's spend a few minutes to see the data returned by the API to build our use case. The request (GET) start_date (YYYY-MM-DD) - Starting date for asteroid search end_date (YYYY-MM-DD) - Ending date for asteroid search api_key - the key you received via e-mail after the previous step. The response It returns a JSON object with valuable data, which we must work with to get what we need. Look at the . data here We have a structure called which contains the details we need in a complex structure: near_earth_objects estimated_diameter - the diameter of the asteroid in meters, kilometers, miles, and feet. relative_velocity - the relative velocity of the object miss_distance - the distance away from the orbiting_body orbiting_body - in most cases, is Earth, but you could explore more options if you like. Run So we have all the objects passing nearby and want to get the closest one and alert us daily. Let's use your Python skills to do that. #Settings and URL to conect to NASA API
#Get your free API key from here: https://api.nasa.gov/

ad_today = date.today().strftime("%Y-%m-%d")
url = "https://api.nasa.gov/neo/rest/v1/feed?start_date="+ad_today+"&end_date="+ad_today+"&api_key=[your keu]"


#Hadle the responce json
response = requests.request("GET", url)
response.encoding = 'utf-8'
jsn = response.json()


if "near_earth_objects" in jsn:
  

    base = jsn['near_earth_objects'][ad_today]
    i = findClosestEncounter(base)

    #extract the data we need to create the alert
    name = base[i]['name']
    to_appear = base[i]['close_approach_data'][0]['close_approach_date_full']
    how_close = base[i]['close_approach_data'][0]['miss_distance']['kilometers']
    dia_meter =  base[i]['estimated_diameter']['meters']['estimated_diameter_max'] The findClosestEncounter function helps you find the closest object to Earth from the bucket of all things passing nearby. Maybe there is a more elegant solution, but this one works for me well. def findClosestEncounter(jd):
    # a simple function for discovering the nearest object for the day from all registered objects
    asteroids = []
    for i in range(0, len(jd)):
        asteroids.insert(i,jd[i]['close_approach_data'][0]['miss_distance']['kilometers'])
    return asteroids.index(min(asteroids)) Make it human-readable. Since we will send an SMS, formatting the data is a good idea. Feel free to use another formatting as well. #format the data
    howclose = round(float(how_close))
    diameter = round(dia_meter) Build the message you want to send via SMS. #build the message
    alert ="The nearest asteroid for today is "+ name+". It will be "+str(howclose)+" km away with a diameter of "+str(diameter)+" meters." NeoWs recap What have you done so far? You have an API key for the NASA OpenAPI portal You explored the NeoWs API You extracted the closest object to Earth from all the objects that could pass nearby. You crafted a message to alert yourself to this encounter. Let's send that SMS. There is another API I want to introduce in this short but helpful example - Messagebird. Release the bird Visit their website and register to get an API key After the registration, you can send a few SMS messages delivered to your actual phone number. Let's add this functionality to your Python code. complimentary #SMS client
    #Get your free API key from here: https://developers.messagebird.com/api/#api-endpoint
    sms = messagebird.Client("your API key here")

    #Prepare and send the message to a phone number of your choice.
    # Change the name "Asteroid" to something you want. It will appear as a sender
    message = sms.message_create(
        'Asteroid',
        '+yourphonenumner',
        alert,
        { 'reference' : 'Asteroid' }
    ) Get the Armageddon Alert You can find the . complete script here Put all the pieces together and run your code to see whether you did well.  Now you can sleep better, knowing you will be alerted about every big object flying towards the Earth. Of course, NASA needs to detect it first. If you like the result, you could put it in a cron job and trigger it once a day. Happy Hacking!

Build a Python App to Alert You When Asteroids Are Close to Earth

গ্রহাণু পৃথিবীর কাছাকাছি হলে আপনাকে সতর্ক করার জন্য একটি পাইথন অ্যাপ তৈরি করুন

Erstellen Sie eine Python-App, die Sie warnt, wenn sich Asteroiden der Erde nähern

Cree una aplicación de pyton para alertarlo sobre asteroides cerca de la Tierra.

Créez une application pyton pour vous alerter des astéroïdes proches de la Terre.

पृथ्वी के करीब क्षुद्रग्रहों के लिए आपको सतर्क करने के लिए एक पायटन ऐप बनाएं।

地球に近い小惑星について警告する pyton アプリを作成します。

소행성이 지구에 가까워지면 경고하는 Python 앱 구축

Crie um aplicativo pyton para alertá-lo sobre asteroides próximos à Terra.

Asteroitler Dünya'ya Yaklaştığında Sizi Uyarıcak Bir Python Uygulaması Oluşturun

Xây dựng ứng dụng pyton để cảnh báo bạn về các tiểu hành tinh ở gần Trái đất.

构建一个 pyton 应用程序来提醒您靠近地球的小行星。

For decades, scientists and engineers have emphasized the hazards of accumulating in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) and geosynchronous orbit (GEO). Even small-sized debris flying at high speeds can harm crew and infrastructure. The increase in space launch traffic has increased space debris orbiting near Earth. The April 2022 released by the European Space Agency’s Debris Office estimates more than 31K objects being regularly tracked by Space Surveillance Networks, with approximately 130 million objects greater than 1 mm not being tracked. space debris Space Debris Environment Report Space debris is becoming more than pesky junk. In , an old rocket stage that had been orbiting for seven years smashed into the Moon’s far side, leaving a surprising double crater. Although the rocket’s origins remain unclear, it is the first documented Lunar crater from human activities. The blast that blew up the Russian satellite Cosmos 1408 into thousands of shrapnel and residue forced astronauts and cosmonauts in the International Space Station (ISS) to shelter in escape vehicles. , the Russian Progress MS-20 freighter (robotic transport ship), which had been docked at the ISS, conducted an unplanned thruster burn (Pre-Determined Debris Avoidance Maneuver, or PDAM) for 4 mins, 34 seconds to move the station further away from lingering residue from the blast. March 2022 November 2021 In mid-June With ambitious plans to increase humanity’s presence in cislunar orbit and Mars, the problems with space debris in our corner of the Solar System will continue to complicate. Therefore, I was inspired to experiment with a creative medium while bringing attention to it. I decided to produce and conceptualize an experimental video game, “ ,” in partnership with Texas-based indie game designers and . This free browser desktop game on the popular indie gaming platform Itch.io explores how robots and humans collaborate in space as the threat of space debris grows. Spacing Out with R-Capek Annie Wu David Martinez Why A Video Game? On Inspiration I had no prior experience producing video games, nor did I have the luxury of a sizable discretionary budget. So why did I choose to experiment and explore a different medium? Because games are, by definition, escapist settings to play, grow, and learn with quicker feedback loops than in real life. Some games can be exceptionally resourceful in approaching seemingly intractable problems. In fact, playing games compares to how excellent science fiction encourages us to ask hard questions and use our imagination to understand the bigger picture. Some of the most thought-provoking that research and development of new robotic technologies must add value to our existence on Earth and in space. science fiction reminds us in creative ways, like playing games, I also discovered along the way that designing games with indie creators, much like writing or creating art, is a fascinating process of introspection and self-discovery. On one hand, I continued to research the latest developments in space science and engineering, including novel ideas being proposed worldwide such as to a different orbit (EOS Space Systems, Australia), or through autonomous spacecraft (Astroscale, Japan). On the other hand, I learned what gaming strategies worked and what is consistent with a good experience for the player. Much has been written about the psychology of video games. At its core, designing and playing games requires a different approach to problem-solving and a high degree of situational awareness. high-powered lasers to move debris debris docking and removal Jane McGonigal, a well-renowned US game designer, inventor, and researcher, has been a strong advocate for using online collaborative games to solve the world’s most urgent problems, for example, poverty, hunger, climate change, among others. In an older but popular Ted talk, McGonigal goes to great lengths to explain how games can change perceived limitations of what we’re capable of due to the positive emotion epic wins bring about. An epic win is defined as a victory so overwhelmingly incredible in the eyes of the gamer that they discover just how much they’re truly capable against the odds of what was previously seen as impossible. McGonigal also points out that younger generations worldwide are becoming increasingly sophisticated at playing and developing online games. Some statistics estimate more than three billion gamers worldwide, which presents an exciting opportunity to crowdsource some of the most challenging problems — like space debris. Jonathan Blow is another veteran programmer and recognized indie video game developer in the United States. Blow’s Youtube channel is rich with his presentations explaining his views about using video games to improve education. In addition, he advances the positive net value of learning and discovery through online games. In particular, there’s a July 2020 presentation where he points out that games should be taken seriously as a medium, especially as it relates to experimenting with different iterations, scenarios, and configurations in the same game and from contrasting angles and points-of-view. According to McGonigal and Blow, games can encourage one to become a better thinker. By developing deep expertise in the pursuit of a win, gaming forces you to formulate your ideas and experiments and test them alone or in collaboration with others. I also found this accurate when conceptualizing the game with a unique character robot as a partner. The Need to Change the Main Narratives About Robots “R-partner” Monica Hernandez. 2022. I knew I wished to pay tribute to the history of robots for a robotic-inspired video game tackling space debris. “Robota” means forced labor and hard work in the Czech language. The term was first coined by the Czech artist Josef Capek and popularized by his brother Karel Capek - a writer - in his 1920 science fiction play Rossum’s Universal Robots. (R.U.R). In Capek’s play, robots were human-made synthetic organic beings — possibly the predecessor to our understanding of modern androids. The robots in Capek’s R.U.R were initially happy to work for humans but eventually revolted. Death and destruction followed, leaving a bleak impression of human-robotic co-existence and collaboration. Since R.U.R., an abundance of dystopian narratives continues to predominate in the mainstream news, films, and literature, popularizing doomsday narratives. In contrast, I believe we’re missing more of the positive outlooks for a future with autonomous robots, especially for long-term space research, travel, and exploration. I’ve , but I often come back to the vital partnership between humans and robots in space in my writing as I’m fascinated by it. written about this for Hacker Noon before If you think about it, given our present knowledge about life on Mars, only this alien planet. So how does this reality expand our vision of what it means for humanity to become multiplanetary? With robots becoming more like ambassadors of society, I’m reminded of a recent trip to NASA’s Kennedy Space Center Journey to Mars exhibit. There’s a message on one of the Journey to Mars exhibit halls, “bots before boots,” to remind visitors about these incredible machines traveling to the Solar System on our behalf. robotic landers and rovers inhabit NASA Kennedy Space Center (Monica Hernandez 2022). So, I wanted to spin a hopeful alternative to Capek’s R.U.R and many mainstream narratives about robots. Humans and robots must work as partners in space to survive and thrive. Our understanding of this symbiosis will be vital to becoming a multiplanetary species. BONUS: A conversation with the indie game designers: Annie Wu and David Martinez. What inspires you about space exploration and space research? The future depends very much on space exploration and research. My concern is mainly with the focus on the environmental state of the Earth. Research that brings us some insight on how to cultivate energy better, find alternatives or even inhabit other planets is extremely critical information. But in addition, innovation in space technology has always been the source of important resources for humanity. For example, MRI scanners, smoke detectors, and even portable vacuum cleaners have roots in space research. Wu: Artistically, I see space as colorful an ecosystem as any other on Earth. I love to imagine the different life forms that potentially exist and their varied ways of living. In addition, there is an element of mystery to space. I am sure there must be things we could not even possibly try to conceive within our current framework and intelligence. Space exploration fascinates me because of the thought-provoking questions relating to its many mysteries. Honestly, if I weren’t an electrical engineer, I would likely pursue space science and research as I imagine there is still much research to be done over astronomical objects and bodies. However, the cosmic phenomena I am most interested in reading about in the future are black holes and newly discovered planets with the ability to support life. Martinez: Another thing that entices me about space research is how our planet is affected when we take resources out and into another world. For example, our ecosystem is driven by an algorithm that involves recycling materials, so what will happen to Earth’s resources when space research expands farther? Questions like these inspire me to learn more about space. How long have you been designing/working on games? I have been designing games for approximately four years now. I mainly manage the graphics department, including the visual concept & storytelling, animation, and 3-D modeling if needed. I started on Roblox with Fluent_Lua, creator of the racing game Accelerate, and eventually moved into smaller, indie game development. Wu: I have designed games in Unity and Unreal Engine for four years. If I had realized how fun it is to use both these engines, I would have probably started developing games much younger. Documentation, interviews, and journal articles have really pushed me to learn more about games and how to make reasonable decisions to make games a fascinating, rewarding experience for the player. I plan to continue this trend in the future. Martinez: What can games provide/offer to popularize space science and engineering? Space science and engineering are often intimidating areas of study. Games provide a form of tangible interaction that is not only graphically simplistic but can convey complex messages with an element of fun! Wu: Games can pique gamers’ interest by placing them in moody, exciting environments in space. The amount of detail to grasp up there is almost overwhelming, so developers have plenty of options and places to put a player in. One of the most potent questions players can ask during their play-through is “what’s that?” when traversing through a level. By seeing how this body looks and interacts in space, their interest has been piqued, and they’ll likely think about this experience more as they continue to play the game. Martinez: What have you learned about the space industry working in this particular game? I learned that robots’ role in the space industry would become increasingly essential. As exemplified by “Spacing Out with R-Capek,” a particular sort of symbiotic relationship will need to develop with the advancement in technology and robotics/AI. Wu: I learned of the various methods spaceships use to acquire energy and the forms of energy they use to make space travel possible. While outlets on a spacecraft are not ideal for charging a robot, it does bring into perspective how useful it would be if a group of charging stations were set up around the ship to allow multiple robots to charge simultaneously. Martinez: Lessons Learned Games can advance the broader conversation about the topics currently being discussed at the highest levels in space agencies, research organizations, and companies. Moreover, I suspect some of the most complex solutions to space debris can be derived from gaming. Some key takeaways and lessons I learned from the production and creation of “Spacing out with R-Capek” are: 1) Autonomous robots and AI technologies are critical for any serious spacefaring ambitions. 2) Online gaming is rising, and so is space debris. Regardless of budget, there’s always an opportunity to raise awareness and visibility through creative media. The solutions to a growing junkyard above Earth and beyond will need to be crowdsourced to the many bright minds. 3) Indie gamers, designers, writers, and creators bring unique skill sets and perspectives to space science and engineering. It is healthy to offer contrast to mainstream narratives about deep tech R&D. 4) Feedback and ideas are always welcome. Everything can always be streamlined and improved. So be sure to play and share it with others! We can find solutions to the toughest problems if we collaborate and incorporate our robotic partners.

Tackling the Growing Threat of Space Debris with Robot-Inspired Gaming

Photo by on Adam Nir Unsplash U.S. Senator and National Monetary Commission chairman Nelson Aldrich. “[T]he study of monetary questions is one of the great causes of insanity." – Introduction Money Money is a technology designed to facilitate commerce and investment. Money was primarily , not economists, although first definitively defined by that great economist . developed by scientists William Stanley Jevons Economists study money.  Scientists defined and engineered it. When the notorious Scottish economist John Law meddled in French monetary policy, he infamously muddled it, destroying France financially. What is Money? summarizes the consensus well: Wikipedia “In Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (1875), famously analyzed money in terms of four functions: a , a common measure of value (or ), a standard of value (or ), and a . By 1919, Jevons's four functions of money were summarized in the : William Stanley Jevons medium of exchange unit of account standard of deferred payment store of value couplet Money's a matter of functions four, A Medium, a Measure, a Standard, a Store. “This couplet would later become widely popular in macroeconomics textbooks. Most modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of the , , and .” medium of exchange unit of account store of value Not for nothing did U.S. Senator Nelson Aldrich -- while reporting, in 1909, on the observations of his National Monetary Commission, in a of New York-- archly quote McLeod to the effect that: speech before the Economic Club "the study of monetary questions is one of the great causes of insanity." This was almost certainly a swipe at free silver demagogue and presidential candidate William Jennings “You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold” Bryan. Yet perhaps Sen. Aldrich was prophesying my good friends, Gerard Daché, the founder and executive director of the Government Blockchain Association and Professor Jim Liew, of Johns Hopkins University. And me…. Not so incidentally, let us recall quantum physicist Niels Bohr’s comment to Wolfgang Pauli: “We are all agreed that your theory is crazy. The question that divides us is whether it is crazy enough to have a chance of being correct.” As it happens, money has a sterling scientific provenance. Ralph Benko addressing a gathering of the Government Blockchain Association January 27, 2022, National Press Club, Washington, DC.  Photo by Jim Liew. Money’s Provenance Copernicus Money's modern scientific provenance goes back at least to Nicholas Copernicus, the very same savant who persuaded the Earth to orbit the Sun instead of the Sun orbiting the Earth as previously believed. In 1526, yes, nearly 500 years ago, Copernicus wrote a brilliant treatise . It was my arcane privilege to serve as the lead co-editor of what may be its most esteemed modern translation. On the Minting of Money Copernicus warned: “ALTHOUGH THERE ARE COUNTLESS MALADIES that are forever causing the decline of kingdoms, princedoms, and republics, the following four (in my judgment) are the most serious: civil discord, a high death rate, sterility of the soil, and the debasement of the coinage. The first three are so obvious that everybody recognizes the damage they cause; but the fourth one, which has to do with money, is noticed by only a few very thoughtful people, since it does not operate all at once and at a single blow, but gradually overthrows governments and in a hidden, insidious way.” He went on to observe: “Money, or ‘coinage,’ is gold or silver that has been specially marked — in accordance with policy established by any government or head of government — for the purpose of reckoning the prices of things that are bought and sold. “Money is therefore a kind of common “measuring stick” for the valuation of things. Now, whatever is taken as a measure has to be stable — must keep to a fixed limit. Otherwise, public order will necessarily be disturbed, and the buyers and sellers of things will be cheated many times over, just as if basic measures of length [Latin ulna, or ell], bulk measure [Latin modius, or peck], or weight did not have a fixed quantity. “Now, I think that the relevant measure here is the valuation [Latin aestimatio] of the money as such, and, although this is founded in the quality of the metal it is made of, nevertheless, money’s material or metallic value [Latin valor] must be distinguished from its valuation as money [aestimatio]; for money can be valued more in itself than the material it is composed of and vice versa [i.e., its material value may be more than its actual valuation]. “It is necessary for money to be established: even though exchange could also take place simply by weights of gold or silver alone (since, by universal human consent, gold and silver are everywhere highly valued). “Nevertheless, money is needed for two reasons: first, because of the inconvenience of always having to carry around heavy weights of metal, and second, because the real value of the metals is not easily grasped by everyone at a glance. Thus it has become customary to mark money with a public seal, by means of which the proper amount of gold or silver is indicated as present in each coin, and that the public authority is to be trusted in this. … “The [material] value of money is lessened in many ways: either through defect of material alone, namely, when more bronze is mixed with silver than is right for that particular weight of coin; or through the loss of [total] weight of the coin, even though the proportion of bronze to silver is correct; or (and this is the worst case) through both of these defects occurring at the same time; finally, the value can just diminish on its own through usage, over a long passage of time, and this is the only reason for making new money. “The evidence of this happening is, if the silver in the money is found to be significantly less than what can be bought with it — and this is rightly considered debasement [or poverty: Latin penuria] of the currency.” The Prussian nobles who Copernicus was addressing did not heed his wise advice. They eventually suffered the fate he predicted. Newton In addition to observing an apple’s fall and founding modern physics, Sir Isaac Newton served, professionally, as the Master of the Royal Mint of Great Britain toward the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century. Per the itself: Royal Mint “When Sir Isaac Newton came to the Royal Mint Britain’s finances were approaching crisis, with up to one in ten circulating coins believed to be forged.  His vision of matchless quality led him to root out and prosecute notorious counterfeiters, improve assaying techniques (the way coin quality is checked), and refine weights and measures to standards never seen before. “In 1699 Newton became Master of the Mint. After overseeing the new coinage for the accession of Queen Anne in 1702 he also supervised the huge task of bringing Scottish coinage into line with English coinage, following the Union of England and Scotland in 1707. Thanks to Newton’s vision, Royal Mint coins remain unrivaled in their accuracy and purity to this day.” How great a figure was Newton? Just for a moment, consider , delivered posthumously by his brother, Geoffrey, singing the praises of Newton in the 1940’s. the last words of the first celebrity economist, John Maynard Keynes ”Newton was not the first of the age of reason. He was the last of the magicians, the last of the Babylonians and Sumerians, the last great mind which looked out on the visible and intellectual world with the same eyes as those who began to build our intellectual inheritance rather less than 10,000 years ago. Isaac Newton, a posthumous child born with no father on Christmas Day, 1642, was the last wonderchild to whom the Magi could do sincere and appropriate homage.” And per : Christianity Today “Even in Newton’s lifetime, his contemporaries’ adulation verged on worship. Following his death in April 1727, Newton lay in state in Westminster Abbey for a week. At the funeral, his pall was borne by three earls, two dukes, and the Lord Chancellor. Voltaire observed, “He was buried like a king who had done well by his subjects.” “No scientist before or since has been so revered and interred with such high honor. “Who was this man whose stature has dominated the scientific landscape for three centuries? Why did his achievements have such an impact on society? What role did Newton’s faith play in his life and work? … “For Newton the world of science was by no means the whole of life. He spent more time on theology than on science; indeed, he wrote about 1.3 million words on biblical subjects. Yet this vast legacy lay hidden from public view for two centuries until the auction of his nonscientific writings in 1936. “Newton’s understanding of God came primarily from the Bible, which he studied for days and weeks at a time. He took a special interest in miracles and prophecy, calculating dates of Old Testament books and analyzing their texts to discover their authorship. In a manuscript on rules for interpreting prophecy, Newton noted the similar goals of the scientist and the prophecy expositor: simplicity and unity.” Although the Sermon on the Mountain contains an aphorism holding that you cannot serve both God and money, Newton proves a clear exception to that rule. What was Newton’s Monetary Legacy? A happy accident by Newton led to the gold standard, a monetary system which helped Great Britain prosper, proving instrumental in Britain’s becoming a dominant world power. : Wikipedia ”Great Britain accidentally adopted a de facto gold standard in 1717 when Sir__ __, then-master of the , set the exchange rate of silver to gold too low, thus causing silver coins to go out of circulation. Isaac Newton Royal Mint “A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when adopted it following the introduction of the by the new Royal Mint at in 1816. Britain gold sovereign Tower Hill “As Great Britain became the world's leading financial and commercial power in the 19th century, other states increasingly adopted Britain's monetary system. … “The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of .” World War I Contemporaneously with Newton, John Law, a Scottish economist, introduced (what some today call “fiat”) in France. This led to a speculative bubble, horrendous inflation, and both France's and Law's financial ruin. a paper money standard Per : Wikipedia “[Law] served as Controller General of Finances under the , who was regent for the juvenile . In 1716, Law set up a private in France. A year later it was nationalized at his request and renamed as . … Duke of Orleans Louis XV of France Banque Générale Banque Royale “Law also set up and directed the , funded by the Banque Royale. Its chaotic collapse has been compared to the 17th-century in Holland. The Mississippi bubble coincided with the in England, which allegedly took ideas from it. Law as a would win card games by mentally calculating …. The term " " was coined for beneficiaries of Law's scheme. Mississippi Company tulip mania South Sea bubble gambler odds millionaire … “Speculation gave way to panic as people flooded the market with future shares trading as high as 15,000 livres per share, while the shares themselves remained at 10,000 livres each. “By May 1720, prices fell to 4,000 livres per share, a 73 per cent decrease within a year. The rush to convert paper money to coins led to sporadic bank hours and riots… The descent of a relatively unknown man came as fast as his rise, leaving an economic power vacuum. Law's theories live on 300 years later and ‘captured many key conceptual points which are very much a part of modern monetary theorizing.’" Priestley Fast forward again, now toward the mid-to-late 1700s. One of the first great chemists, Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen and the inventor of carbonation (an invention upon which our soft-drink industry is based) wrote extensively and eruditely on the gold standard, providing an extensive lecture on the mechanics of money later published in his y (1793). Lectures on History and General Philosoph Per : Wikipedia “Lectures on History and General Policy (1788) is the published version of a set of lectures on history and government given by the 18th-century British to the students of . polymath Joseph Priestley Warrington Academy “The Lectures cover an array of topics—"forms of government, the feudal system, the rise of corporations, law, agriculture, commerce, the arts, finance and taxation, colonies, manners, population, war and peace"—demonstrating how all-encompassing Priestley believed the study of history to be. “Priestley offers a version of history in which all events are ‘an exhibition of the ways of God.’ Studying history and nature, according to Priestley, ‘leads us to the knowledge of his perfections and of his will.’ Understanding history thus allows one to comprehend the natural laws God established and the perfection towards which they allow the world to tend. This outlook is tied together with Priestley's belief in scientific progress and the improvement of the human race.’” millennial Stornetta and Haber The author taking a snapshot of Dr. Stornetta and Congressional blockchain thought leader Lizzy Fallon, Capitol Hill, January 10, 2022. Photo by Jim Liew. Fast forward yet again, to the late 20th century. In 1991, Dr. W. Scott Stornetta, together with Dr. Stuart Haber, published . This was the breakthrough that is the blockchain, cited three times (out of eight citations) in Satoshi's white paper. How to Time-Stamp a Digital Document Per , Coingeek " Working at Bellcore Labs in the 1990s, scientists Stuart Haber and Scott Stornetta were allowed to pick their own research projects. For Scott, a problem worth solving was the authentication of digital documents: how could you be sure the version you were looking at had not been altered from its original? “The two worked as a team and were on the point of proving to themselves that the question of trust made the problem insoluble: there always needed to be some independent person or body to verify authenticity—but what if they were also part of a collusion? But then, Scott says, as he was waiting to go into a restaurant (author’s note, as he told me, a Friendly’s) with his family, he had a brainwave. “If you needed to keep adding extra trusted parties to vouch for the honesty of the existing players, then, logically, the list would expand infinitely until the whole world was required. And that still wouldn’t be enough. Scott’s insight was, as he explains it, ‘I realised that if you turn that upside down and created a system of interlinked documents with essentially everyone as a witness, then you had, in fact, solved the problem.’” Behold the seed of cryptocurrency, the money of the future. Conclusion And there you have a potted history of the scientists who invented money as we knew it and know it today: Copernicus, Newton, Priestley. And the secret origin story of future money by scientists: Stornetta and Haber. I have treated you to the scientific provenance of the key makers of money, with brief detours to the distinguished monetary economist Jevons, a passing reference to the first celebrity economist, John Maynard Keynes, and a revelation of the notorious economist John Law, proponent of promiscuously issued paper money with its attendant catastrophic debasement. And here we are today at the Government Blockchain Association's . Future of Money, Governance and the Law Contemplating the contributions of five distinguished scientists, coupled with brief forays to three influential economists, gives us insight into the potential future of money, governance and the law. What possibilities for greater prosperity, equity and financial stability does the blockchain create? So glad you asked. Let us reprise the view of the great discoverer of oxygen who offers: “A version of history in which all events are ‘an exhibition of the ways of God;’ studying history and nature, according to Priestley, to lead “us to the knowledge of [God’s] perfections and of [God’s] will." Let us reprise the quest of the great Newton, who sought, both as to prophecy and science, simplicity and unity. What possibilities does the blockchain create? Welcome. You’ve come to the right place. Adapted from at the Government Blockchain Association’s the National Press Club January 27, 2022. remarks presented The Future of Money, Governance and the Law, Dedicated to Ellen Stevens, editor extraordinaire.

A Brief History of Money

Recently, SpaceX launched Starlink in Portugal. So, naturally, our CTO got one for Altar as soon as the pre-orders opened. A couple of weeks ago, the sleek satellite dish finally arrived. In no time at all, Claudio and a couple of devs from the team had unboxed it and set it up in the garden outside our offices. Fast forward to today, and he's had the opportunity to use Starlink, as well as run some tests. Here's the full rundown of those tests, in Claudio's words, starting with his initial impressions Starlink Unboxing & First Impressions Inside the large grey Starlink packaging, you’ll find: The Starlink, motorised, satellite dish – connected to a 30-meter (100 foot) Power-over-Ethernet (PoE) cable A metal tripod stand A power adaptor A small metal Wi-Fi Router with its own PoE cable. The initial set-up was incredibly simple: Click the dish into the tripod mount, plug the PoE cables from both the router and the dish into the power adaptor, plug it into the wall socket, download the app and you’re ready to go. The hardware is well designed, especially the metal Wi-Fi router, which looks like it’s been freshly carved out of a Cybertruck. The dish itself is plastic mounted on a metal pole. The PoE cable is permanently attached to the dish. I feel this last part is worth noting – without a way to easily detach the PoE cable from the dish, you could face having to replace the whole dish if the cable gets damaged. To run it out of your house you’re looking at either drilling a hole in the wall or permanently leaving a window open as the cable is quite thick (7mm) and includes an even thicker ferrite bead (19mm). The app is also well designed, with the consistent UX you would expect from a company like SpaceX. The seamless setup continues here with no login requirements – keeping the experience truly “plug and play”. This brings me to the crux of this article, the internet tests. Starlink Setup & Internet Tests To cut a long story short, Starlink offers a moderately fast, if somewhat inconsistent, broadband connection – under the right circumstances. I initially set up Starlink in the garden outside our offices. Despite the fact there were no obstructions directly above the dish, the garden is located in the centre of the building, and is surrounded on all sides. This was enough of an obstruction to mean that I wasn’t able to connect to the internet using Starlink (after 30 minutes of adjusting the dish positioning). It’s worth noting here, however, that Starlink’s value proposition is not for inner-city use. Rather, its goal is to bring high-speed internet to rural areas. So, I packed Starlink back up, popped it in the back of my car and headed home to run some further tests. I set Starlink up in my garden initially, 5 meters away from the house. Despite it being much more of an open space vs. the office, the height of my house (~7 meters) still obstructed the satellite dishes view. So, once I had run all the intended tests, I moved Starlink to an open field with no obstructions and repeated my tests. Aside from the placement of the dish (garden/obstructed & field/unobstructed) I kept all other aspects of the testing parameters the same. Here are the results: Testing Information SpaceX Services, Inc. ISP: 217.65.138.***. External IP address: Access to 1700 Starlink satellites orbiting at 550km of altitude, operating downlinks between 10.7Ghz and 29.1GHz. 2m Distance between Device (Android 11 Smartphone) and Access Point WiFi: -62dBm  (Good) RSSI: -80dBm (Good) Noise: using the Native Android Application. Method used: Ookla SpeedTest A Speed Test estimates the available capacity of the network between the client and the server. The throughput of the tests depends on the distance between the 2 endpoints (Round Trip Time), meaning the closest server will give the most accurate results. The Ookla app automatically chose my server. Per the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Recommendation, I executed the tests at randomly selected times throughout the day (including peak and offpeak time). Test #1: Throughput (Downstream, Upstream) Using the Native Ookla Application, I took 31 measurements at random intervals over two days against the fastest nearby server (automatically selected by the Ookla app). Here are the throughput results for both the obstructed and unobstructed conditions: Once I had completed the throughput tests, I moved on to test Latency & Timeouts. Test #2: Latency & Timeouts For this test, I carried out a continuous measurement over 260 mins. The goal here was to measure the number of timeouts that occur under both the obstructed and unobstructed scenarios. In the obstructed scenario (in my garden, 5 meters from my ~7 meters tall house) I observed 576 timeouts over the 260-minute test. Meaning, there was the chance of an outage every minute: In contrast, in the unobstructed scenario (open field) I observed 47 timeouts over the 260-minute test. Now, the chance of an outage had reduced to once every ~5 minutes: Key Takeaways There are no two ways about it, for optimal connection, where you position the dish is paramount. In an unobstructed scenario, I had no problem working using Starlink. I was able to keep a database connection most of the time, whilst streaming Spotify, downloading files and browsing the internet. In an obstructed scenario, however, it was almost unusable for work. There were simply too many outages. My connection was interrupted too often, my database connection was unstable and I often had to refresh web pages and wait before they would work. That being said, for normal smartphone usage, there were no noticeable differences between the obstructed and unobstructed scenarios. By “normal smartphone usage” I mean music/video streaming and using social media/chat apps). In terms of power consumption, Starlink runs at about 100W – although this can vary if the dishes motors are active. I haven’t observed any overheating or thermal issues with any of the kit parts and the dish seems to sit at a comfortable 23ºC – 25ºC when in use. Is Starlink a True Competitor to Rural Cable Broadband? In rural areas with a good internet infrastructure (basic fibre optic for example), Starlink can’t compete at this time. In areas where minimum cable broadband connections are unstable, however, is where Starlink starts to compete. The other bonus of Starlink is the fact it doesn’t come with a contract. Therefore, if you’re heading to a rural area temporarily (where a 24-month contract wouldn’t be worth it)  then it may be work installing a Starlink kit. After all, once you’ve bought the kit it’s yours, and although you can’t resell it, if you don’t end up using it, it could make a nice (if very expensive) coffee table. Wrapping Up Starlink is a remarkable feat of engineering and SpaceX’s ability to turn it into a consumer product is impressive. That being said, traditional cable companies won’t be overthrown by Starlink any time soon. Firstly, it carries a hefty price tag. The equipment costs €500 plus an added monthly service fee of €99 here in Portugal. It’s a lot to pay for, in the best-case scenario, the reasonable broadband speeds with inconsistent connectivity and large swings in latency that Starlink offers. Perhaps this will change as SpaceX launches more satellites. We may well see it work better when surrounded by tall trees or buildings, but that remains to be seen. However, I do believe that the traditional telecom companies should take note of Starlink. The execution of the product and the hype and excitement of a democratised internet connection should serve as a warning. A warning that people don’t want to be tied down to a 24-month contract just to get a decent internet connection – and that disruption is coming. This review was originally published here using  original data collected by our Chief Technology Officer, Cláudio.

Does Starlink Live Up to Its Hype? 

is a 1990 bullet hell shoot-em-up game released for the Atari ST and Commodore Amiga 16-bit computers, developed by Eclipse Software and published by Thalion Software. What is unique about this game is that it came on a “dual boot” floppy diskette, which allowed two separate versions of the same game to coexist on the same disk together, making the game cheaper to duplicate and sell. Wings of Death The premise involves a wizard named Sagyr (pronounced “Sah-gear”) who seeks revenge on the evil witch Xandrilia (pronounced “Zan-drill-ear”) for transforming him into a shapeshifting winged creature, a hybrid between a dragon, wyvern, griffin, and phoenix, in addition to saving the world. To do so, he must traverse seven (7) stages which start off hard and get increasingly difficult to the point of extreme sadism. For the purpose of this review, I will cover the Amiga version using my custom-made 2-button arcade joystick. The Game This game, as is common for its era, uses multiple floppy disks, as hard disk drives were not commonplace until the Windows 95 era - in this case, it uses two (2) 3 1/2” double-density floppy diskettes, with the introduction and ending sequence on the first diskette and the second disk containing the game itself. When the game boots up, the player is greeted with the above image. Pressing any key on the keyboard or clicking the mouse will take the player to the opening credits accompanied by a very adrenaline-surging score by Jochen “Mad Max” Hippel. Pressing a button or key here will take the player to the main menu (after the player has swapped out the first disk for the second one). Each option is self-explanatory - the player can start a new game or continue a game if they run out of lives. The game is generous enough to provide the player with four (4) continues, the usage of which will take the player back to the beginning of the current level. The player can view the high scores, game information (credits) or choose between sound effects and music (the “Music+” option allows for both simultaneously, which is unusual for games from this era). Typing the word here enables a cheat mode, and the screen will flash red to confirm the correct code entry. With this cheat mode enabled, the player can do the following by pressing the respective keys on the keyboard (in parentheses): SPELLBINDER Change weapons (F1 to F5) Change power level for the current weapon (1 to 5) Change defensive powerup (F6 or F7) Activate temporary invincibility lasting approximately 20 to 30 seconds (F8) The Powerup System The game consists of a unique powerup system commonplace in most shoot-em-ups (mainly Japanese bullet hell games, from which this is indirectly inspired). The player can use between five (5) different weapons: - this is the player’s default weapon and initially fires a projectile in a straight line. Fires multiple triangular bullets at a 180-degree angle when fully upgraded. Split Fire - this fires a smaller and faster (but less powerful) projectile. Fires multiple circular bullets at a 360-degree angle (omnidirectional) when fully upgraded. Circle Blast - this is the most useful weapon in the game since it is the only weapon that has native fully automatic fire (does not require an autofire powerup) - it fires a deadly arc-shaped beam of energy in straight line and fires up to four (4) beams at various angles when fully upgraded. Power Beam - this is the most powerful weapon in the game, capable of killing most enemies in a single shot and can make quick work of bosses, defeating them in a matter of seconds - it fires a small flame and fires a pair of large jets of fire (which then split into opposite directions) when fully upgraded. Dragonfire - this is the most unconventional weapon in the game, as it is powerful but requires some trickery and expertise to master. It fires a volley of fireballs in a straight line when first picked up, and when fully upgraded, will fire a single line of fireballs which then splits into a pair of two separate volleys at right angles (90 degrees). Thunderball The player character will change shape and size to determine which powerup is currently equipped. Powerups can be upgraded by collecting an icon bearing the current powerup’s symbol, and this can be done up to four (4) times. Collecting a different powerup will not only grant the player a new weapon but will also reset the power level and necessitate collecting multiple icons of that weapon to upgrade it, so keep that in mind. The Player’s Defences No game would be fair without some form of self-defense for the player. In this case, the player has three (3) defenses available to find and collect: - this is a simple defense, orbiting the player and destroying enemies it comes into contact with - the most common defense. Destroyer - this actively seeks, locates, and destroys nearby targets in addition to enemies further away (sometimes going off-screen to do so) - less common than the Destroyer but more common than the Shield.  The Hunter and the Destroyer are mutually exclusive (picking up one will result in the loss of the other). Hunter - this grants the player temporary invincibility for about 20 or 30 seconds (the player will flash when invincible) - there is no damage recovery in this game (the player will continue taking damage for as long as they are in constant contact with an enemy or a hazard), so this defense is quite valuable, although scarce. Shield - this is the rarest of them all. It destroys all enemies currently on the screen. Smart Bomb Other Pickups - this simply adds 500 points to the player’s score. Very common and harmless. 500 Ball - this gives the player a speed boost, allowing them to move and fly faster. Wings - This pickup will nullify ALL upgrades to the player’s weapon and take away any defenses they have (including shields and speed boosts), resetting them to their initial state. Skull AVOID THIS!! - this resets the player’s health to its maximum value. Heart - this gives the player an additional life and is one of the rarest pickups in the game. Ankh - this equips the player’s current weapon with fully automatic fire. Picking up another Autofire powerup (or a different weapon) disables this. Autofire Now that the basic mechanics are covered, let’s explore the game’s levels. Stage 1: Sagyr’s Castle This level is fairly easy and gives the player ample time to get used to the game’s mechanics and difficulty. It is set in the protagonist’s castle and is populated primarily by evil statues and the occasional golden eagle, which will drop powerups when defeated. Sometimes the player will come across an entire formation of enemies - destroying the whole formation (killing every single enemy) will also drop a powerup. This stage’s hazards include fire and deadly statues and it is one of the best levels in the game. Boss: 3-headed Hydra Weakness: Head(s) Recommended Weapon: Power Beam Stage 2: The Jungle of Mutants This stage is a good showcase for what I consider to be the game’s main weakness: a gratuitous usage of vivid colors (most of the game’s stages look too garish and cartoony) resulting in the enemies and the background blending in with each other, making it difficult to evade projectiles. Natural hazards include deadly poison plants, rainbow pollen, and giant mosquitoes. About halfway through the level, the player encounters a giant ladybird which neither harms the player nor can the player harm it. This is one of the weaker levels in the game, in my opinion, due to the garish palette. Boss: Obese Beetle Weakness: Jaws Recommended Weapon: Dragonfire Stage 3: The Lethal Swamp After a brief visit into Hell for the color-deficient, we return to a much more subdued palette and environment for this third stage. This is where the difficulty begins to increment significantly after the first two levels’ somewhat easy ride. Enemies include giant floating Emperor Palpatine heads, angry mosquitoes, eccentric skeletons, and possessed swords that can attack the player from behind. Hazards include puddles and lakes of deadly bubbles. Boss: Legless Skeleton Weakness: Floating Head Recommended Weapon: Either Dragonfire or Power Beam Stage 4: A Scape of Fire The difficulty begins to increase with this stage, and the lack of health-based pickups (energy or life) does nothing to alleviate the constant projectile dodging the player will undertake for the majority of this level, which has a half-volcanic, half-Greco-Roman theme to its design. This is usually the point where even the most experienced of players will run out of their initial set of lives and get a game over, where they must choose between settling for a high score or continuing at the expense of a clean slate (their score is reset to 0 with each continue used). Hazards include pools of lava, jets of hot liquid magma, and active volcanoes complete with eruptions. Enemies include angry clouds, oversized mosquitoes, and (red gargoyle-like demons in Arab mythology). ifrits Boss: Cacodemon Weakness: Whole Body Recommended Weapon: Dragonfire Stage 5: Cold Lands of Doom and Despair As the name suggests, this stage has a very arctic theme to it. The player will be encountering all kinds of ice-themed enemies along the way, including frozen skull faces which spew fireballs and lethal possessed snowflakes. Natural hazards include Olympic torches, deadly frozen flowers which spew projectiles, and what appear to be a cross between a caterpillar and a pig in a blanket. This level does have a nice artistic touch involving frozen faces visible in the background (see the screenshot above). Boss: Angry Q*bert Lookalike Weakness: Whole Body Recommended Weapon: Dragonfire Stage 6: Crystal World This is the penultimate (second to last) stage of the game, and the difficulty is near its peak. As the name implies, the player is in a crystalline dimension. This level has very few powerups (and is full of hidden skulls), but it compensates with an abundance of shields and defenses. This time, the player can easily die due to too many sprites appearing on the screen at once and unleashing projectiles which are nearly impossible to avoid completely as opposed to the earlier stages’ garish colors. Enemies include flying skulls and angry scarabs, while natural hazards include glowing lava lamps and some of the crystals themselves. Boss: Dragon Weakness: Head Recommended Weapon: Either Dragonfire or Power Beam Stage 7 (Final Stage): Xandrilia’s Domain This is it. The last level of the game… and the difficulty is now at its apex, bordering on sadistic - this stage is a true test of the player’s skill, reflexes, and perseverance. There are enemies coming from all sides, next to no powerups, very few health-based pickups, and only a single defense and shield. The architecture is a fusion of the majestic and the infernal - this stage is full of natural hazards. Upon reaching Xandrilia’s fortress, the final boss of the game will appear in the form of a demonic dog along with possessed masks - defeat it, and you’ve won. Boss: Single-Headed Cerberus & Evil Face Masks Weakness: Head (Cerberus), Whole Body (Masks) Recommended Weapon: Either Dragonfire or Power Beam Here’s the ending sequence for those who find this game too hard or are simply too lazy to try: The ending text is transcribed here due to its questionable legibility thanks to the pseudo-medieval font used throughout the game: “Congratulations! You managed to get even with evil Xandrilia. Finally, you have regained your own form again and fame will follow you throughout her domain for the rest of your life!” Presentation The game’s presentation is very well developed and well executed for this era. The rudimentary cutscene at the end, in addition to the improvised opening credits when the game begins, does give this game a more epic scope and feel and is a sign that the developers care about their product. This is a game that was made for the 16-bit machines, and it shows, although there is a lack of optimization for the Amiga version since the Atari ST is the lead platform, which was commonplace in the era of these games. Porting aside, it is a very well-crafted effort. Graphics (Detail, Color) The game’s graphics are nicely realized and very well detailed. However, the color palette is inconsistent and can vary from level to level - this is more prominent in the early stages, where the colors used can cause enemies, hazards, and projectiles used to blend in with each other and make the game unnecessarily difficult. In the levels where the colors do have the right combination, however, every detail is vibrant and easily identifiable, and every enemy and hazard pop out at the player. The player sprites themselves are also uniquely colored, drawn, and shaped (in addition to having different sizes depending on the player’s weapon), giving the game some visual variety. Sound (SFX, Music) The game’s soundtrack is by Jochen “Mad Max” Hippel, a composer who is quite well-known on the Atari demoscene for converting SID tunes from the C64 to the Atari ST’s YM2149F chip, which is similar but not identical to the AY-3-8912 chip used in other computers of the time such as the MSX series, Amstrad CPC and 128K models of the Sinclair ZX Spectrum. As a result, the game’s soundtrack fares better on the Atari ST than on the Commodore Amiga, which utilizes mostly samples in addition to the actual recorded sound of varying quality as opposed to a series of bleeps and bloops. Sound effects are limited mostly to muffled explosions when enemies die, a voiceover announcing whatever items the player picks up, and an evil laugh that plays whenever the player loses a life or collects the dreaded skull pickup. The game does have music for nearly every setting, though - the opening credits and ending sequence have their own music, as do each of the game’s seven stages, in addition to a funky drum beat when the game loads the next level. Controls The controls are smooth and responsive - maybe a little bit too responsive, particularly when equipped with multiple speed upgrades, which could result in the player flying into enemy projectiles and/or hazards instead of trying to dodge them, which could be problematic in some of the levels with more garish color palettes, as everything just blends in together. Like most games from this era, only a single-button Atari-style joystick is supported, which is curious because, by this point, games were evolving to the point that usually overcame such a limitation, and the Atari ST and Amiga could support two (2) separate fire buttons (compatible games could use a Sega Master System/Mark 3 controller as it shares the same pinout save for an additional pin wired up to accommodate a second button) as well as the MSX computers (whose controllers were not compatible, as they were wired up slightly differently). The one complaint I do have is that the fire button must be pressed manually (and constantly) to ensure rapid fire, so this game is best played with a joystick or gamepad that supports turbo fire. I also feel that this game would have been more playable with a mouse instead of a joystick, which would have allowed a greater freedom of movement and precision. Gameplay (Difficulty, Fun-to-Frustration Ratio) The gameplay is highly reminiscent of bullet hell games, and as such, places emphasis on speed and skill, and the enemies will always appear in the same predetermined paths in the exact same sequence, eliminating any strategy from the player’s part and proving the very definition of insanity. The difficulty for the game is also a potential deterrent, as it starts off fairly challenging in the first stage and quickly becomes brutally difficult, and the final stage is the epitome of shoot-em-up gaming sadism. An option to choose the difficulty (easy, medium, or hard) would have been beneficial and could have made the game more accessible to a larger audience. The game’s strength lies in its powerups and upgrade system - the player MUST level up their weapon if they are to succeed and emerge victorious, with the Dragonfire (which can kill most enemies in less than a second) and the Power Beam (with its multiple arcs of energy at various angles) being the best weapons in the game. The weakest weapon, in my opinion, is the Circle Blast, as it does insufficient damage in its initial state, meaning enemies cannot be destroyed quickly enough to upgrade it. There is some strategy for the game’s bosses, though (the Stage 2 boss requires the player to circle around and go behind it in order to evade projectiles before coming back to the front to attack it, ditto the Stage 5 boss). Overall is a semi-classic from the peak era of 16-bit home computers, and it would not have been out of place had it originally been an arcade game. Rather than make the usual ST-to-Amiga quick port, the developers actually tried to make some use of the Amiga’s expanded capabilities, including the sampled sound and larger color palette. It sold well enough to warrant a sequel the following year (1991) in the form of (AKA ), which had a futuristic sci-fi theme and involved Sagyr fighting Xandrilia’s descendants in the far future. However, that game did not sell as well, largely due to the difficulty being even more cruel and sadistic than that of its predecessor. Wings of Death Lethal Xcess Lethal Xcess: Wings of Death 2 A lot of games made in the West (and even in Eastern Europe due to the proliferation of copies and clones made behind the Iron Curtain) ran the gauntlet from excellent to average to abominable, many of which were ported from one machine to another without optimizing the target system’s specifications and capabilities. , however, shows the potential that these machines have when coded properly and when ported with optimization in mind, rivaling some Japanese games in terms of addictiveness and atmosphere. This game is a must-have if you like a good challenge and a shooter with a unique medieval theme, regardless of whether you have an Atari ST or Commodore Amiga. Wings of Death Final Score: 4 out of 5.

Wings of Death (Commodore Amiga) Retro Game Review 

Welcome to ’s Writing Prompts! Would you like to take a stab at answering some of these questions? The link for the template is . HackerNoon HERE RE: Automation, AI, and the Future of Jobs This entry includes my opinion about ’s story I'll try to cover this topic with a perfect example of a career that evolved from a hobby to the invention of the scientific method, and which today is essentially a data science. Let me guide you through the evolution of Astronomy. @roxanamurariu "Automation, AI, and the Future of Jobs" What is your opinion regarding this piece? The article shows us the evolution of the workforce on time. Throughout the reading, the author explains the changes during the "first, second, and third industrial revolutions" and introduces the with artificial intelligence + modern robotic as the leading root cause. fourth industrial revolution In general, I like how the author presents the topic, primarily due to the references supporting her ideas. I enjoyed the reading, and I agree with most of the points. The references are essential since they give the reader more context, and it helps to illustrate her points. In my opinion, the third industrial revolution is still in progress and is too soon to consider we are experiencing the fourth. Artificial intelligence, modern robotics, gene editing, and 3D printing are part of the spectrum of the third industrial revolution. Moreover, I think there are some blockers like computer power, specific Internet-related issues, and the upcoming generations' learning curve, which prevent us from moving into a new technology revolution. Another fact that supports my argument is that the most advanced robots of Boston Dynamics do not use artificial intelligence at their core. The technology is still in progress, and it will be some time until we can see robots immersed in our day-to-day life. If you are interested in their technology, please refer to this and the “ “ blog post. Boston Dynamic talk Flipping the script with ATLAS Finally, I think the fourth industrial revolution is highly attached to quantum computers. Once we control the quantum power to process a large amount of data, the new era of computers will start, which will allow the fourth industrial revolution to begin. What are some of the varying perspectives on this subject that you’re aware of? As I promised at the beginning of the story, let me talk about how Astronomy evolved. Let's talk about the past. The first "modern" data scientist was Tycho Brahe, who generated detailed data about the stars in the sky using his naked eyes. That data allowed Johannes Kepler to formulate the equations that are essential in today's astronomy. During the same era, Galileo used a telescope to generate the second generation of observations and confirm Tycho's and Kepler's works. Finally, Newton wrote Principia, which describes the bodies' mechanics using math language based in all the previous work to support of his ideas. Every effort helps build the future. Today there are multiples ground telescopes, and we have the first generation of telescopes orbiting the earth. The astronomer's profession has evolved with the new technology, and it has been adapted according to human reality. In October of 2021, there are 4300+ exoplanets confirmed. Are we alone? What do you think today's astronomer does? Astronomers spend most of their time watching a computer screen than using telescopes (I'll refer you to Dr. Becky's video " "). However, the objective of astronomy as science is fundamentally the same. a day in a life of an astrophysicist In a nutshell, as a new technology revolution happens, new roles and jobs will appear, and computers will do the tedious processes. Moreover, as described in the article, deep learning, data models, and artificial intelligence will help build our future by classifying data, creating models, making bold predictions. What are some of the nuances people frequently miss when discussing this subject matter? Talking about the future is a complex task that requires data from the past and continuous monitoring of the present. The idea is to reduce the risk of an undesired future. However, long-term predictions carry uncertainty (new science discoveries, changes in humans priorities, lack of data etc.) that make it hard to generate a 100% accurate model. It is the reader's responsibility to understand the scope and the limitations of the predictions? While reading this kind of article, it is the perfect time to self-evaluate your current skill set and identify new items to add to your learning path. For instance, how many languages do you know? Do you consider that speaking to a computer is a new kind of language? What a remarkable time it is to learn how to communicate your ideas to a computer! It's well known that with the right amount of data, we can make predictions about the next state of a well-defined system. Nevertheless, you have to remember there is not enough data neither computer power to model the human race, so it will be impossible to predict the future. At least in 2021. Lastly, If you want to try to make reasonable predictions about something, there is one thing you can do: become an expert in a specific field. Once you are involved enough within a single topic, you will have enough information to create a model and make short-term predictions. For instance, don't you try to predict the end of your favorite series? Well, it is the same, but in real life. What is your favourite quote or paragraph from this article? Why? "We will need to reinvent ourselves periodically: get an education, get a job, upskill, get a job, upskill, get a job, etc." That quote clearly describes my life strategy. Once a year, I try to evaluate myself regarding how useful I can be for the industry. As an example, because I am part of the software development business as a developer, I try to organize the conferences I want to attend, the books I should read, and the courses I would like to watch during the following year. I would love to read some of the other people's strategies. Was there a part of the article that you didn’t necessarily think about before, what was it? I didn't think before about the top 10 most desired skills to get a job. As a developer, I always think about the new technical skill that I need to unblock. However, after reading the article, I can see how soft skills are equally important as hard skills. It makes me think that we work with humans, and having excellent soft skills will make you a team player within your company. Is there anything else about this you’d like us to know? I want to use this space to say . Technology is here to help. You don't need to be an expert in everything. Humanity is about communities, and everybody in a community has a way to contribute to its success. everything will be alright There is a misconception that every technology revolution carries more problems than benefits due because it could cause some people to lose their jobs. You can read more about the term Technophobia in a paper called " ." I hope it can help you to clarify your ideas around that topic. Psychological Barriers to Digital Living in Older Adults: Computer Anxiety as Predictive Mechanism for Technophobia Have fun, learn something new as soon as possible, and double-check your lifestyle to allow future humans to enjoy the world as you do. Would you like to take a stab at answering some of these questions? The link for the template is just start writing! Interested in what others had to say in their answers? Click . Interested in reading the content from all of our writing prompts? Click . HERE, HERE HERE

Are We in the Third or the Fourth Industrial Revolution? 

Today I wanted to try and recreate a super cool I came across. dribbble shot from Dede Dwiyansyah It's actually a Figma tutorial on how to create the frosted credit card effect. I decided to try and recreate this amazing shot in HTML! (With an own twist) So time to give it my own take on CSS. I knew it was possible to do this effect, but normally people leverage a background image filter blur, which in this case wouldn't work with the balls behind it. So I decided to do some research, and this is my end result. I'll be guiding you through how to make this in CSS. HTML Structure Let's start by defining the HTML structure for this project. 8293 3412 5976 1254 12/24 Insert Visa logo here < = > div class "holder" < = > div class "card" < = > div class "card__text" < /> br < > small </ > small </ > div < > svg </ > svg </ > div </ > div As you can see I'm using a holder div, we need this div for the two orbiting balls. Then we have the card, which contains another container for the text, and at the end, an SVG for the visa logo. Note: The full SVG visa logo can be found on the Codepen. Now it's time to start the fun bit, the CSS. CSS Frosted blurry glass effect I'm going to be guiding you through all the little pieces we need to re-create this cool CSS frosted glass effect. First, we need to use a font that resembles a credit card font. I found the works pretty well. Inconsolata font on Google fonts @ url( ); import 'https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Inconsolata&display=swap' With this line, we . import the font directly from Google fonts Next, we add a small reset to get rid of the default margins and paddings. * { : ; : ;
} margin 0 padding 0 Now let's style the body. In the dribbble shot, we saw the person used a gradient background, I decided to give it a background image. { : ( )
    no-repeat center center; : cover; : grid; : , monospace; : ; : center;
} body background url 'https://images.pexels.com/photos/1655166/pexels-photo-1655166.jpeg?auto=compress&cs=tinysrgb&dpr=2&h=750&w=1260' background-size display font-family 'Inconsolata' min-height 100vh place-items I'm also using the to get the card centered on our page. In this spot, we are also loading our fonts. CSS grid center method As mentioned we are using the holder to place our two orbiting balls in. We will be using pseudo-elements to create these balls, so our holder will need to be a relative element. { : relative;
} .holder position Now let's create the balls, the orange one will be created using the and the blue one with the . before pseudo element after pseudo element They share some similarities, in size and roundness so let's write that with a double selector. , { : orbit linear infinite; : ; : (0, 0, 0, 0.2); : ; : ; : absolute; : ;
} .holder :before .holder :after animation 5s border-radius 50% box-shadow 0 0 1rem 0 rgba content '' height 150px position width 150px This creates a round ball because of the 50% border-radius. We also add an animation called orbit. We'll create the animation in a bit. Now for the orange ball, we need to create a radial gradient. { : ; : (top right, #ffe897, #f98a05); : (to bottom left, #ffe897, #f98a05); : (top right, #ffe897, #f98a05);
} .holder :before background #ffe897 background -moz-radial-gradient background radial-gradient background -webkit-radial-gradient I used to generate the gradient. css-gradient.com Then for the blue one, we also place a radial gradient and offset it to the right side. This one also needs an animation delay, else they'll be doing the exact same thing. { : - ; : ; : (bottom right, #e0e793, #6dd0f1); : (to top left, #e0e793, #6dd0f1); : (bottom right, #e0e793, #6dd0f1); : ; : ; : - ;
} .holder :after animation-delay 2.5s background #e0e793 background -moz-radial-gradient background radial-gradient background -webkit-radial-gradient right 0 top 0 z-index 1 Then it's time to add our card. The card itself has a fixed size and a small box-shadow to make it pop a bit more: { : solid ; : ; : (0, 0, 0, 0.2); : ; : ; : hidden; : relative; : ;
} .card border 1px #fff border-radius 15px box-shadow 0 0 1rem 0 rgba font-size 2rem height 220px overflow position width 370px Then for the magic part, the blur effect we use another . :before pseudo element { : (255, 255, 255, 0.3); : (10px) (100%) (45%) (130%); : ; : ; : absolute; : ;
} .card :before background-color rgba backdrop-filter blur saturate contrast brightness content '' height 100% position width 100% The whole magic blur effect comes from the backdrop-filter this gives it the blurry look. We also use a background color with an opacity of 30% using the rgba spectrum. For the text inside we only need to offset it a bit and make sure it's on top of everything. { : ; : ; : ; : relative; : ;
} .card__text color #6f7886 margin-left 30px margin-top 100px position z-index 2 Remember we had the Visa SVG logo, we put that in the right bottom corner. { : ; : absolute; : ;
} .card svg bottom 30px position right 30px Before we talked about the orbit animation, this animation will make the two balls orbit around the card, in a circular motion. @ orbit { { : (0deg) (100px) (0deg);
  } { : (360deg) (100px) (-360deg);
  }
} keyframes from transform rotate translateX rotate to transform rotate translateX rotate This specific animation uses a two-step animation transforming the elements to rotate from 0 to 360 degrees (a full circle). It also offsets the translateX axis to make it move. The full result of this can be seen on this Codepen. Browser Support This method relies heavily on the backdrop-filter which has quite decent support. It can be safely used in all modern browsers, you can get some more support by leveraging all the prefixes for it. Thank you for reading, and let's connect! Thank you for reading my blog. Feel free to subscribe to my email newsletter and connect on or Facebook Twitter Previously published at https://daily-dev-tips.com/posts/css-frosted-glass-credit-card/

CSS Recreation: The Frosted Glass Credit Card Design

A GET request to the Astronomy Picture of the Day (APOD) web service on September 18, 2020, returned the above photo of the spiral galaxy Arp 78.  APOD is one of many APIs available through NASA Open APIs.  Like APOD, some include imagery, such as the Earth Polychromatic Imaging Camera (EPIC) API, which returns images like this: Others include data. The Coronal Mass Ejection Analysis API, which is part of the DONKI suite of space weather forecasting tools, returns data that looks like this: [
   { : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : },
   { : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : , : }
] "time21_5" "2016-09-06T14:18Z" "latitude" -20.0 "longitude" 120.0 "halfAngle" 31.0 "speed" 674.0 "type" "C" "isMostAccurate" true "associatedCMEID" "2016-09-06T08:54:00-CME-001" "note" "" "catalog" "SWRC_CATALOG" "link" "https://kauai.ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/DONKI/view/CMEAnalysis/11233/-1" "time21_5" "2016-09-15T04:24Z" "latitude" -18.0 "longitude" -122.0 "halfAngle" 43.0 "speed" 722.0 "type" "C" "isMostAccurate" true "associatedCMEID" "2016-09-14T23:36:00-CME-001" "note" "Measured with swpc_cat using C3 and STA Cor2 imagery." "catalog" "SWRC_CATALOG" "link" "https://kauai.ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/DONKI/view/CMEAnalysis/11256/-1" In this article, we'll dig into an API that, like the one above, returns NASA data in JSON format.  We’ll explore a small portion of all the available information provided through NASA Open APIs. We'll visualize that data with a Python library called Bokeh to help contextualize it for the viewer. Check out the interactive visualization created in this tutorial or see the code on GitHub. The NeoWs API The Near Earth Object Webservice (NeoWs) API caught my attention immediately, because... well, who wouldn't want to know about asteroids hurtling towards earth at this very moment? The NASA Open APIs documentation describes it this way: "NeoWs (Near Earth Object Web Service) is a RESTful web service for near earth Asteroid information. With NeoWs a user can: search for Asteroids based on their closest approach date to Earth, lookup a specific Asteroid with its NASA JPL small body id, as well as browse the overall data-set." NeoWs data is also relatively accessible for someone like myself with no subject matter knowledge.  Unlike some of the space weather APIs, which I find mostly unintelligible with my lack of space weather training, NeoWs returns data with self-explanatory keys like "estimated_diameter" and "miss_distance": { :{ : , : , : }, : , :{ :[
         { :{ : }, : , : , : , : , : , :{ :{ : , : }, :{ : , : }, :{ : , : }, :{ : , : }
            }, : , :[
               { : , : , : , :{ : , : , : }, :{ : , : , : , : }, : }
            ], : },

... "links" "next" "http://www.neowsapp.com/rest/v1/feed?start_date=2020-09-30&end_date=2020-09-30&detailed=false&api_key=DEMO_KEY" "prev" "http://www.neowsapp.com/rest/v1/feed?start_date=2020-09-28&end_date=2020-09-28&detailed=false&api_key=DEMO_KEY" "self" "http://www.neowsapp.com/rest/v1/feed?start_date=2020-09-29&end_date=2020-09-29&detailed=false&api_key=DEMO_KEY" "element_count" 12 "near_earth_objects" "2020-09-29" "links" "self" "http://www.neowsapp.com/rest/v1/neo/54054531?api_key=DEMO_KEY" "id" "54054531" "neo_reference_id" "54054531" "name" "(2020 SN2)" "nasa_jpl_url" "http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=54054531" "absolute_magnitude_h" 24.431 "estimated_diameter" "kilometers" "estimated_diameter_min" 0.0345425963 "estimated_diameter_max" 0.0772395934 "meters" "estimated_diameter_min" 34.5425962673 "estimated_diameter_max" 77.239593373 "miles" "estimated_diameter_min" 0.0214637676 "estimated_diameter_max" 0.0479944434 "feet" "estimated_diameter_min" 113.3287315376 "estimated_diameter_max" 253.4107475218 "is_potentially_hazardous_asteroid" false "close_approach_data" "close_approach_date" "2020-09-29" "close_approach_date_full" "2020-Sep-29 13:21" "epoch_date_close_approach" 1601385660000 "relative_velocity" "kilometers_per_second" "8.7170431155" "kilometers_per_hour" "31381.355215948" "miles_per_hour" "19499.1537451539" "miss_distance" "astronomical" "0.1257314283" "lunar" "48.9095256087" "kilometers" "18809153.865737721" "miles" "11687466.2571577098" "orbiting_body" "Earth" "is_sentry_object" false It also contains the eminently important "is_potentially_hazardous_asteroid" key.  I didn't include this information in the visualization in this article because I optimistically assume this key will almost always be set to false. NeoWs data is retrieved with a simple GET request: GET https: //api.nasa.gov/neo/rest/v1/feed?start_date=START_DATE&end_date=END_DATE&api_key=API_KEY Visualizing Asteroids Although it's clear what fields like "miss_distance" mean, the JSON data alone doesn't give us much sense of perspective.  This is where our Bokeh visualization comes in. We will create a chart that looks like created on September 27th: this one This plot contains circles representing asteroids that reached their closest distance to Earth on the day the code was run (in this case, on September 27th). The time the asteroid approaches Earth is in UTC along the X-axis and miss distance in miles is along the Y-axis. The relative size of each asteroid is given by the radius of each circle.  The size of all asteroids on our plot is scaled up by a factor of a million. This is so that they are visible despite the Y-axis being in millions of miles and the largest asteroid on the plot being less than a mile across. The moon is plotted in blue in the lower left-hand corner of the chart. This is to give the viewer a sense of how far the asteroids really are from Earth.  The moon's radius is not to scale relative to the asteroids, as it is much larger than the largest asteroid on the chart and, if scaled up by a factor of a million, would be larger than the chart itself. Although this plot is a static HTML page, it was created entirely in Python.  Bokeh is an excellent visualization library for creating interactive plots with a limited amount of code. I chose Bokeh for this visualization because I've worked with it several times and found development in Bokeh to be extremely fast relative to the quality of output it produces. Querying NeoWs Before you can start querying NASA Open APIs, you will need to create an API key. This is fast and free. Instructions on how to do this can be found at the top of . api.nasa.gov We'll use the library to make GET requests against the NeoWs API.  First, make sure requests is installed on your system: requests pip install requests in Python is simple: Making the GET request params = { : today_str, : today_str, : self.api_key}
        
        get_request = requests.get(url = self.api_endpoint, params = params)
        json_resp = get_request.json() 'start_date' 'end_date' 'api_key' now contains a JSON blob from NeoWs like the one above. json_resp We only need a few items from to create our plot, so I extract that information before passing the list of asteroids back to the caller.  In this case, we only want the asteroid's name, close approach time, miss distance, diameter, and it's JPL URL. We will append these values as a tuple to our list of asteroids. json_resp miss_miles = neo[ ][ ][ ][ ]
diameter_miles = neo[ ][ ][ ]
url = neo[ ]
asteroid_list.append((name, close_approach_epoch, miss_miles, diameter_miles, url)) 'close_approach_data' 0 'miss_distance' 'miles' 'estimated_diameter' 'miles' 'estimated_diameter_max' 'nasa_jpl_url' Note that the approach date field is in . I use to convert it to UTC time. Install Astropy: BDT time Astropy pip install astropy And then before appending the data to our list: convert BDT to UTC close_approach_epoch = datetime.datetime.strptime(neo[ ][ ][ ], )
close_approach_epoch = Time(close_approach_epoch, scale= )
close_approach_epoch = str(close_approach_epoch.tt) 'close_approach_data' 0 'close_approach_date_full' '%Y-%b-%d %H:%M' 'tdb' Plotting with Bokeh Now that we have our list of tuples of asteroid data, we can create our visualization. First install Bokeh: pip install bokeh Bokeh has a lot of available. Even after working with Bokeh a few times, I still find it helpful to skim through the examples to find the style of plot I would like to create. I then use that code as a starting point. great examples In this case, I started with the example and modified from there. The final code looks quite a bit different, but I do think the example code saved time that would otherwise have been spent Googling things I've forgotten. color scatter Our begins by setting up our data sources: plotting code names = [(name + .format(dia) + ) (name, miss_time, miss_dist, dia, url) neos_list]
        names.append( ) x = [datetime.datetime.strptime(miss_time[ : ], ) (name, miss_time, miss_dist, dia, url) neos_list]
        x.append(datetime.datetime.strptime(self.date_str + , )) y = [float(miss_dist) (name, miss_time, miss_dist, dia, url) neos_list]
        y.append( ) sizes = [float(dia) (name, miss_time, miss_dist, dia, url) neos_list]
        radii = [size * size sizes]
        radii.append( ) urls = [url (name, miss_time, miss_dist, dia, url) neos_list]
        urls.append( ) colors = []
        min_dist = min(y)
        max_dist = max(y)
        range_dist = max_dist - min_dist (name, dist) zip(names, y): name == :
                colors.append( ) dist == min_dist:
                colors.append( % ( , , )) dist == max_dist:
                colors.append( % ( , , )) :
                perc = (dist - min_dist)/range_dist
                num = int(perc * ) num > :
                    colors.append( % ( , num , )) :
                    colors.append( % ( -num, , )) source = ColumnDataSource(data=dict(hours=x,
                            distance=y,
                            names=names,
                            radii=radii,
                            colors=colors,
                            url=urls)) : def plot_asteroids (self, neos_list:list) # We will label each circle on our plot with the NEO name and it's diameter " {:.2f}" " M wide" for in 'Moon' # We will add the moon to our plot to help give a sense of scale # Drop the nanoseconds we don't need off the end of the timestamps 0 -7 '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S' for in ' 04:00' '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M' # We'll put the moon at 4 hours # Distance from Earth will go along the Y axis for in 238900 # The moon is 238,900 from Earth # Let's represent each NEO's relative size with the diameter of each circle # Since most NEOs are less than a mile wide, we will need to scale them by a factor of 1e7 # to see them on our plot for in 1e7 for in 1e6 # This is an arbitrary size, since the moon is actually much larger than any of our NEOs # Users will be able to click on each circle to view the NASA's page for each NEO for in 'https://moon.nasa.gov/' # Moon website! # Let's make the NEOs coming close to Earth red and the # ones farthest from Earth green for in if 'Moon' '#0EBFE9' # Let's make the moon blue so that # it's clear it's different from the NEOs elif "#%02x%02x%02x" 255 0 0 elif "#%02x%02x%02x" 0 255 0 else 500 if 255 "#%02x%02x%02x" 0 -255 0 else "#%02x%02x%02x" 255 0 0 # Create the ColumnDataSource that we will use for plotting and creating labels The list provides the color for each of our circles. The asteroids with smaller miss distances are shades of red and the ones with further miss distances are shades of green. Note that this is all relative to each other; the closest asteroid in the list is set to red regardless of its absolute miss distance. colors Bokeh does provide for colorizing plots. I found that in my case the auto-magic behind the pallettes colorized my circles by radius rather than Y-axis value, so I constructed the colors list myself to achieve the effect I wanted. built-in pallettes After constructing each list, I wrapped all the data in a . It's not required to do this; you can pass the data to Bokeh directly for plotting. However, the provides data mapping that drives a lot of Bokeh's features. In this case, the ColumnDataSource allows us to construct all the labels for our circles with a single call: ColumnDataSource ColumnDataSource labels = LabelSet(x= , y= , text= , source=source, text_font_size= ) 'hours' 'distance' 'names' '8pt' refers to our ColumnDataSource variable defined above. source=source source It also allows us to set up a that will open each asteroid's JPL link when a user clicks on it: TapTool taptool = p.select(type=TapTool)
taptool.callback = OpenURL(url= ) # Add TapTool call back that will open a new tab with our NEO URL on a click "@url" refers to the "url" field in our ColumnDataSource. "@url" Bokeh allows us to add some on our chart. I used this feature to credit the source of our data and make an explanatory note about the moon: annotations citation = Label(x= , y= , x_units= , y_units= ,
                        text= , render_mode= ,
                        border_line_color= , border_line_alpha= ,
                        background_fill_color= , background_fill_alpha= ) max_size = max(sizes)
scale = .format( /max_size) moon_note = Label(x= , y= , x_units= , y_units= , text= + scale + , render_mode= ,
                border_line_color= , border_line_alpha= ,
                background_fill_color= , background_fill_alpha= , text_font_size= ) # Let's label each NEO to make our plot more meaningful 850 70 'screen' 'screen' 'Data From NASA NeoW API' 'css' 'black' 0.6 'white' 0.6 # Let's make a note comparing the moon's real diameter to the largest NEO on this plot " {:.2f}" 2158.8 # Moon is 2,158.8 miles in diameter 150 30 'screen' 'screen' 'Moon diameter not to scale; it is ' 'x larger than largest NEO on this plot.' 'css' 'black' 0.6 'white' 0.6 "8pt" With these components in place, we can construct our output file and display our plot. output_file( , title= , mode= ) TOOLS = p = figure(tools=TOOLS, x_axis_type= , plot_width= , height= , x_axis_label= , 
    y_axis_label= , title=self.plot_title)
p.circle(x= , y= , source=source, radius= , fill_color= , fill_alpha= , line_color= )

labels = LabelSet(x= , y= , text= , source=source, text_font_size= )

p.add_layout(labels)
p.add_layout(citation)
p.add_layout(moon_note) taptool = p.select(type=TapTool)
taptool.callback = OpenURL(url= ) show(p) # Output our plot to a static HTML file "neos_today.html" "NEOs Demo" "cdn" # Set up our plots "pan,wheel_zoom,box_zoom,reset,box_select,lasso_select,tap" "datetime" 1250 650 "Hours After Midnight" "Miles From Earth" "hours" "distance" "radii" "colors" 0.6 None 'hours' 'distance' 'names' '8pt' # Add TapTool call back that will open a new tab with our NEO URL on a click "@url" # Display the plot in a browser defines our static HTML output file. The call will display this file in a browser and can be omitted if you don't wish to display your plot immediately. output_file show refers to various interactive user tools Bokeh provides, such as zooming and panning tools. They appear to the left of my plot (the display location of tools if you wish) and allow users to explore the plot by adjusting it in various ways. TOOLS can be adjusted Sharing your visualization Our output is a static HTML file. I'm using a public S3 bucket to make my example chart available online. I could also include it on another website, or share it via email. Taking this example further Bokeh does for building apps that involve periodic updates to plotted data. I've used Bokeh Server several times and found it easy to use, but not appropriate for embedding Bokeh into other more complex applications. provide a server im plementation Nonetheless, an interesting extension of this project would be to build a simple app that updates asteroid data daily and posts updated plots to a website or S3 bucket. I also wondering about creating a version of this plot that doesn't scale the size of the asteroids up, but instead uses animation to zoom in on each asteroid, providing a better sense of scale in regards to the asteroids' true sizes. Final thoughts This project is a starting point for further exploration into available NASA APIs. Plotting data with Bokeh is the easy part; the limiting factor for most of us will be understanding the NASA data itself. I look forward to putting in a little extra research on some of the more accessible APIs to see what I can learn and build!

Visualizing Asteroids in Python with Bokeh and NASA APIs

A new space era is here.  We’re witnessing the convergence of emerging and advanced technologies for space missions. This convergence has made a profound impact on the speed and efficiency to reach significant milestones for space research, travel, and exploration. Governments and international space agencies have often partnered with private companies and research institutions. Due to costs and complexity, the space industry is collaborative and multi-stakeholder. I know first-hand. I worked in 2017 as Global Communications Manager at Ad Astra Rocket Company, which focuses on developing for in-space transportation. advanced plasma electric propulsion technology I have been fascinated with space from a very early age. Space promises adventure. It also presents us with some of the most complex challenges to solve as a civilization. The current global space ecosystem is growing. Traditional paradigms of cybersecurity in space depend on shielding sensitive information for national security by leveraging centralized computing servers and cloud-based architectures. With a wider acceptance of peer-to-peer network-based infrastructures, which seek to avoid centralized points of failure, I recently researched blockchain uses in private-public space partnerships. For six weeks, I joined the first online cohort composed of blockchain enthusiasts, students, and professionals from across the globe for the following course: . This course was organized by the Blockchain Center in tandem with FinTech School and led by Professor Gregory LaBlanc. Expanding upon the concepts and insights learned throughout the course, I wanted to submit a capstone research project about space as my final assignment. Blockchain Fundamentals for Enterprise In my process of inquiry, I learned that blockchain as an exciting emerging technology for space has not lagged. Blockchain is defined here as a type of distributed ledger technology that provides a record of ownership and transfer of data into a single and shared source of truth instead of a centralized master ledger. Specifically, blocks of data are chained sequentially using cryptographic functions called hashes for a complete audit trail that provides proof of transactions. If data has been tampered with anywhere along the chain, computer nodes can easily detect inconsistencies and reject transactions to reach network consensus. Several cases of private-public partnerships currently explore blockchain architectures in the space industry, especially for satellites. an open-source meta satellite network with potential for . that broadcast the Bitcoin blockchain to reduce Bitcoin’s dependency on Internet access and thus its energy footprint on Earth. , a blockchain-based database to monitor the position of satellites. SpaceChain proposes crowdfunding efforts Blockstream proposes satellites ConsensySpace launches TruSat Background of Problem A niche case for blockchain technologies is space debris. Debris in space results from human-made objects that have exploded, collided, or broken apart in-orbit. Depending on its volume and size, debris traveling at high velocities in space can cause significant damage. Space debris may potentially disable outbound or inbound satellites, impact infrastructure such as that of the International Space Station - ISS, and strike astronauts during their walks. As of February 2020, reported 34,000 objects larger than 10 cm currently orbiting the Earth and more than 500 breakups, explosions, and collisions in low Earth orbit. Low Earth orbit or by the National Aeronautics Space Station - NASA as the region of space within 2,000km of Earth's surface. LEO is densely concentrated with debris and in range to Earth’s gravitational proximity. the European Space Agency - ESA LEO is commonly defined Geosynchronous orbit or GEO is the region around the Earth roughly at 35,786km above the equator. An increasing number of communications and weather satellites populate the . The hazard of has been reported to be under-measured. GEO as it matches the direction and period of the Earth’s rotation space debris in GEO Only a portion of satellites launched and still in space remain functional. In the quest for faster and better access to the Internet, more satellites are being sent to space. Private companies plan to launch satellite constellations that surpass the numbers of thousands. Some of them include , , and . SpaceX’s Starlink network Amazon’s Project Kuiper OneWeb The question is: how can emerging technologies manage the data of a crowded Earth orbit with satellites and space debris?  In the long term, if unattended, such crowding out can prove disastrous. This is especially important because debris in space is a collective risk. There are managing space debris collaboratively and independently, including but not limited to NASA, U.S. Department of Defense Orbital Debris Program, ESA, Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, among many others. numerous agencies and stakeholders Use Case #1: NASA and Faculty Research Making and generating , a three-year Early Career Faculty Grant to Dr. Jin Wei-Kocsis during her role as professor at the University of Akron in Ohio. Per media outlets, this Early Career Faculty Grant time funds blockchain projects for space. waves across the Internet lots of buzz NASA awarded in 2018 constituted the first NASA’s Glenn Research Center The research proposes developing Ethereum-based architectures for autonomous spacecraft with other advancements such as cognitive computing, Internet of Things, and machine learning. These autonomous spacecraft could potentially detect, recognize, and avoid space debris, as well as automatically execute tasks in deep space environments. Deep space constitutes the distant outer regions . beyond LEO and cislunar space As a government agency, NASA shares details about the (#80NSSC17K0530) with the public. Interesting updates about are available in a couple of technical publications. Wei-Kocsis and fellow researchers, including NASA personnel, explain in the that are part of the grant: timeline and the status of this grant this ongoing research published technical papers “There still remain essential challenges to develop effective data-driven methods because of the need to acquire a large amount of data and to have sufficient computing power to handle the data…To address these challenges, a decentralized, secure, and privacy-preserving computing paradigm is proposed to enable an asynchronized cooperative computing process amongst scattered and untrustworthy computing nodes that may have limited computing power and computing intelligence. This paradigm is designed by exploring blockchain, decentralized learning, homomorphic encryption, and software defined networking(SDN) techniques.” Wei-Kocsis, currently a professor at Purdue University, shared some noteworthy insights at the . This conference was filmed on the live Traders Network Show in Boston, Massachusetts on October 2019. Wei-Kocsis stressed the limitations in deep space of computing power and machine intelligence, which depend on centralized, cloud-based systems. Distance, debris, or radiation interference can be disastrous to spacecraft. They cause the latency of data, communications, and decisions. 2019 Converge2Xcelerate Conference "If you have some emergency…in deep space, you don’t have enough time to address that issue…in real time [and] potentially cause critical situations,” Wei-Kocsis explains. This sentiment about critical timing is confirmed in . Documenting the impact of space debris on the ISS crew, the Academy of Program/Project & Engineering Leadership- APPEL at NASA write: NASA documentation “Sometimes there isn’t enough advance warning to perform a conjunction assessment or a maneuver. For example, in 2009 a collision threat to the ISS crossed the red threshold, meaning the risk of collision was greater than 1 in 10,000. Because there wasn’t time to perform a collision avoidance maneuver, the ISS crew was instructed to get into the Soyuz spacecraft so that if the ISS were hit by debris, the crew would have a chance of undocking and going home.” The limitations in power and memory of cloud-based, centralized-computing architectures for deep space are key challenges for sustained space missions. This is at the core of the faculty grant research.  There’s also an inherent challenge of scaling trust amongst multiple parties, institutions, and stakeholders. Wei-Kocsis discusses this in the conference. "There will be spacecraft owned by NASA and potentially owned by other countries such as Russia such as China. [This] doesn’t mean that there are malicious... just means that trustworthiness [among] parties is kind of low.” In this sense, where trust among parties is a concern or just complex to build, decentralized blockchain-ledgers may provide-relief with an additional level of applications: smart contracts. Smart contracts are electronic transactions that execute as programmed on blockchain networks such as Ethereum. If the necessary conditions are met, performance and enforcement are guaranteed. Wei-Kocsis and fellow researcher Praveen Fernando, . expand their work on smart contracts “In our proposed networking solution, we exploit Ethereum blockchain and impose security functionalities automatically via smart contracts.” Both researchers claim to have submitted a provisional patent about these technologies as well (USA Parent provisional 62/771,230,2018). A common source of data distributed across the blockchain network therefore builds-in incentives for multiple parties to trust in advance these self-enforcing smart contracts. These computable contracts are programmed according to specific objectives. Currently, there is not a single source of truth. There are heterogeneous points of data about individual satellites and space debris, which represents a cumbersome technical and policy issue. As part of my research, I took a look at the fascinating and in-depth perspectives about the nuances of smart contracts from a contract law perspective. In , Professors Kevin Werbach and Nicolas Cornell explain: Contracts ExMachina “The critical distinction between smart contracts and other forms of electronic agreements is enforcement. Once the computers determine that the requisite state has been achieved, they automatically perform data-oriented or computable contracts…The evolution from electronic, to data-oriented, to computable contracts embodies a trend toward greater machine autonomy. As computers can increasingly replace humans in negotiating, forming, performing, and enforcing contracts, contracts can increasingly operate with the speed and consistency of machines…Yet by switching from the ex post adjudication of contract to the ex ante reduction of agreements to software code, smart contracts will in some cases merely shift problems rather than eliminate them…Even if the smart contract operates exactly as designed, it may produce suboptimal results, either in the minds of one or both parties, or as a matter of economic efficiency, because it is fixed. Sometimes, for example, nonperformance is the desirable outcome. Much has been made of the idea of efficient breach…” Increased machine autonomy may indeed manage and address space debris. Decisions about space debris may be executed automatically instead of decisions by exceptions between institutions and across networks. This, however, raises complex questions from a contract law perspective about future scenarios. For example, how to manage errors in code. “Even if the underlying blockchain consensus mechanisms are reliable, the smart contract applications running on top of them may not be…” write Werbach and Cornell. It also raises questions about how to manage the possible unintended uses of self-enforcing smart contracts programmed with a different intent in autonomous machines or on autonomous spacecraft at the expense of human oversight. relying too heavily During the 2019 Converge2Xcelerate Conference, Wei-Kocsis described some of the advances in prototyping hardware that uses blockchain-based protocols for satellites. She described using proof of work protocols for the testing phase in the research for NASA. Proof of work relates to the type of algorithmic protocol for the consensus that must be reached amongst nodes to reconcile a transaction. Wei-Kocsis hints that a proof of authority protocol in a permissioned blockchain, where consensus depends on authorized actors to validate transactions, may be considered as well. There are important . Unlike public and permissionless blockchains, such as those of Bitcoin and Ethereum, public and permissioned blockchains, enable public verification of data.  Only an authenticated set of users is allowed to write and manipulate data on the blockchain. Private and permissioned blockchains differ because they have additional levels of identity management tools for a determined set of authenticated users, which can in turn both read and write data. differences between permissioned public and private blockchains Use Case #2: Blockchain Army The consulting firm Blockchain Army with headquarters in Istanbul and Rotterdam City also addresses space debris as a market for blockchain technologies. On their website, a blockchain-based debris single management platform. In this platform, debris can be listed and categorized with transparency across agencies. The digitization of space debris on blockchain architectures reduces time spent on the reconciliation of data and communications among stakeholders. Blockchain Army proposes Access to data of space debris can be controlled in a permissioned, public blockchain. This architecture would enable authenticated users to protect information sensitive to national interests and to also keep public data open for tracking. Blockchain Army, like Wei-Kocsis and fellow researchers, also proposes the usage of smart contracts. These smart contracts automatically execute and inform other cooperating agencies of incumbent risk. According to their estimations, space debris removal represents an industry valuation of approximately USD$2.7 billion. This figure is comparable to about the industry. other market studies Futures Ahead The usage of blockchain architectures for space debris addresses an old problem in new ways.  Experts across industries have been about the need to prioritize it for decades. The research and solutions proposed by the faculty and the consulting firm converge on two main criteria. warning us The first criterion relates to the importance of self-enforcing smart contracts to reduce latency and friction. This switches the trust of multiple parties to autonomous architectures underlying the technology stack. The second criterion relates to the integrity and transparency of big data in a context with multiple stakeholders. Data integrity for space debris is already increasingly popular among blockchain firms.  A formed by Aratos Group, Blockchain 2050 BV, LTO Network, SpaceChain UK, recently proposed leveraging blockchain to identify and manage debris. Space Waste Management Initiative Other important research and advances include NASA's exploration of as well as on blockchain for Air Traffic Management. on blockchain took a more conservative wait and see approach for Earth observation. autonomous spacecrafts for human spaceflight NASA’s 2019 white paper ESA’s white paper Key Takeaways The need to harmonize increasingly vast amounts of data about space debris is urgent. Some of the fundamental attributes of blockchain technology are appealing as described in the use cases referenced above. Blockchain technologies may enable networking alternatives in the technology stack for space companies and agencies. Multiple variations of the blockchain stack and its components at the platform layer (for ex. consensus, algorithms, protocol, rules, cryptography), at the application layer (smart contracts), and at the level of nodes and users (validators) may be useful for space missions, exploration, and debris identification and removal. As blockchain technologies continue to mature, in the space ecosystem will continue to lead us into the future. Wei-Kocsis provides us with valuable insights at the 2019 Conv2x Conference. Speaking of futures ahead, she commented the following: private-public alliances “I believe the future…of computing…only [in] my opinion, is cooperative computing…people need [to] claim ownership of their data, try to make the value of their data…and their computing intelligence… The future of computing…is not only [for] NASA deep space…” We don’t have to continue down an inevitable vortex of colossal space junkyards. We can take a look at different possibilities offered by emerging technologies like blockchain to solve a decades-long problem that may  only get worse if left unattended.  By raising awareness of innovative proposals for space debris, I hope that we can continue to leverage advanced and emerging technologies. A spacefaring future is both inspiring and exciting. Let's choose to create it. // Photo credits: NASA Orbital Debris Program Office. View of a hole in the panel of the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) satellite. This hole was caused by impact from space debris.

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