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First mid-term review meeting with our project officer (Domna Paschalidou). The project is progressing according to the plan and for this reason everyone is happy. Let's hope that the next meeting will be in person. One of our ESR - Cristian Dam Vedel made ...

Defect Simulations and Material Growth of III-V Nanostructures –European Industrial Doctorate

The Confocal Raman Spectroscopy Market report provides information about the Global industry, including valuable facts and figures. This research study explores the Global Market in detail such as ...

North America Confocal Raman Spectroscopy Market Report Covers Future Trends With Research 2023 to 2030 - Bruker, WITec, Nanophoton, B&W Tek

In 2021, hosted the first-ever awards!! HackerNoon Startup of the Year The goal of this campaign was to give recognition to the hardworking startups who pulled through the pandemic -- growing and thriving (despite all of the challenges). More than 44,000 startups were nominated all across the globe! They were selected from over 4,553 cities, with a total number of * cough * “4 billion” votes. Insane, right? To see who is a winner in each respective city, visit and pick a city. The name at the top of the list is the winner. (Compromised awards are under review. Cities with tie votes will be updated to have two winners!) startups.hackernoon.com The will announce the winners per region in their respective cities. Startups Winners Announcement series Here are the winners in the : Asia region Top Startup Cities in East Asia Seoul The Startup of the Year in is with 377 votes! Seoul dable Central is the Startup of the Year! It came out ahead with 121 votes. UpNow Central Sheung Wan came out as the Startup of the Year in with 154 votes. Votee Sheung Wan Tokyo The Startup of the Year in is with 41 votes! Tokyo ACES Wan Chai The Startup of the Year in is with 54 votes! Wan Chai Zetl Osaka, Japan In , is the winner! Osaka Nanophoton Taiwan came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Tico Taiwan Dongcheng, China In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Dongcheng Waiju Taipei came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Tico Taipei Akasaka In , is the winner! Akasaka WAKUWAKU Chuo In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Chuo GO-NET Ginza came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Netyear Ginza Kanazawa In , is the winner! Kanazawa Granzella Minami-aoyama In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Minami-aoyama Tokyo6 Entertainment Shibuya came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Hupro Japan Shibuya Toranomon In , is the winner! Toranomon Small Worlds Toshima In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Toshima Altplus Guangzhou, China came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Leyaoyao Guangzhou Hong Kong, Hong Kong In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Hong Kong Episode Six Kunming In , is the winner! Kunming Green A Sapporo In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Sapporo Polar Star Space Shirokanedai came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Nupp1 Shirokanedai Wuhan In , is the winner! Wuhan CSICEE Baoan, China In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Baoan Jumper Baoshan, China In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Baoshan Renren Games Chengdu, China came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Ju You Xi Chengdu Fujisawa, Japan In , is the winner! Fujisawa Scohia Pharma Fukuoka, Japan In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Fukuoka Kyulux Haidian, China came out as the Startup of the Year in ! 51vv Haidian Hongkou, China In , is the winner! Hongkou Kidstone Jiading, China In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Jiading IMRobotic Kawasaki, Japan came out as the Startup of the Year in ! QD Laser, Inc. Kawasaki Kyoto, Japan In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kyoto Hacarus Minato, Japan In , is the winner! Minato Visionary Fun Nagoya, Japan came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Prodrone Nagoya Ningbo, China The winner in is . Ningbo OlymTech Corporation Aomori In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Aomori Forte Japan Bandai-cho In , is the winner. Bandai-cho Delta-Fly Pharm Changchun In , the Startup of the Year is . Changchun Kaidi Animation Fuchu In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Fuchu TMS Fukuoka-shi The winner in is . Fukuoka-shi SkyDisc Fukushima In , the Startup of the Year is . Fukushima Matsuri Technologies Gotanda In , is the winner. Gotanda Basset Hachioji In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Hachioji Adriakaim Harbin The winner in is J . Harbin oining Technology Iwaki In , is the winner. Iwaki Tao Engineering Izumo In , the Startup of the Year is . Izumo PuREC Kagoshima In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kagoshima Farmers Support Kamakura In , the Startup of the Year is . Kamakura KAYAC Kami-meguro The winner in is . Kami-meguro Buzzreach Kanagawa In , is the winner. Kanagawa LoiLo Kashiwa In , the Startup of the Year is . Kashiwa Intelligent Surfaces Kita In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kita Ax Robotix Kobe The winner in is . Kobe Coconomi Koriyama In , the Startup of the Year is . Koriyama Tocoton Kumamoto In , is the winner. Kumamoto Bloom Technology Kunitachi In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kunitachi Trys Liaocheng The winner in is . Liaocheng Jinzheng Animation Minami In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Minami ATLAB Miyazaki In , is the winner. Miyazaki Caster Nagano In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Nagano Precision Forestry Nagaoka The winner in is . Nagaoka Plant Form Nihombashi-hamacho In , the Startup of the Year is . Nihombashi-hamacho Shizen Energy Niigata In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Niigata UniBio Japan Nishi-shinagawa In , is the winner. Nishi-shinagawa Play Heart Okayama In , is the winner! Okayama Arch Farm Okinawa In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Okinawa BlogNinja Otemachi In , the Startup of the Year is . Otemachi beBit, Inc Qingdao Shi In , is the winner! Qingdao Shi Manyoubang Quanzhou In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Quanzhou KungFu Animation Group Roppongi The winner in is . Roppongi Holo-X Saitama In , the Startup of the Year is . Saitama GameTector Sendai In , is the winner! Sendai Sendai Smart Machines Setagaya In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Setagaya Skyestate Shenzhen In , the Startup of the Year is . Shenzhen Aiator Shinjuku In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Shinjuku Scalar Shizuoka In , is the winner! Shizuoka PiPhotonics Sumida The winner in is . Sumida Holotch Tachikawa In , the Startup of the Year is . Tachikawa PlusOne Takamatsu In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Takamatsu Ken Robotec Tokushima In , is the winner! Tokushima DennoKotsu Toyonaka In , the Startup of the Year is . Toyonaka FISH BIOTECH Tsukuba In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Tsukuba WARPSPACE Wakayama In , the Startup of the Year is . Wakayama 4D Sensor Xiangzhou In , is the winner! Xiangzhou ALLiN Edutech Group Xianyang The winner in is . Xianyang TONLY Xiaoshan In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Xiaoshan GONGHUI Yamaguchi In , the Startup of the Year is . Yamaguchi Archis Yangpu The winner in is . Yangpu Tmxmall Yau Tsim Mong In , is the winner! Yau Tsim Mong Airnugget Yeoksamdong In , the Startup of the Year is . Yeoksamdong WizSchool Yichang In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Yichang Hubei Kento Electronic Yokohama In , is the winner! Yokohama Next Innovation Yubei In , the Startup of the Year is . Yubei Ophiux Network Yueqing The winner in is . Yueqing Yueqing Easythink Media Zhuhai In , is the winner! Zhuhai Aijuba Hongo In , the Startup of the Year is . Hongo Smile Robotics, Inc Admiralty In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Admiralty BUNCH Southern In , the Startup of the Year is . Southern Retykle Yongdungpo In , is the winner! Yongdungpo Push News Taichung In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Taichung Wondercise Cyberport, Hong Kong In , the Startup of the Year is . Cyberport Animoca Brands Hefei, China In , is the winner! Hefei Tsinglink New Territories, Hong Kong The winner in is . New Territories, Hong Kong Zeek Dezhou In , the Startup of the Year is . Dezhou Dezhou Baji Kitakyushu In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kitakyushu Reif Seongnam In , is the winner! Seongnam EOFlow Yanshi In , the Startup of the Year is . Yanshi CASI Vision Top Startup Cities in South Asia Hyderabad, India The Startup of the Year in is with 962 votes Hyderabad Quixy Lahore, Pakistan is the Startup of the Year! It came out ahead with 186 votes. SmartWindows Lahore Bangalore, India When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year with 210 votes! Bangalore vBridge Hub Pune, India couldn’t be beaten for Startup of the Year in , it won with 129 votes! InfraCloud Pune Jaipur, India The Startup of the Year in is with 166 votes Jaipur Emizen Tech Lucknow, India is the Startup of the Year! It came out ahead with 279 votes. Keeros Superfoods Lucknow Noida, India came out as the Startup of the Year in with 156 votes! Bagisto Noida Mumbai, India When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year with 96 votes! Mumbai Sequretek Sylhet couldn’t be beaten for Startup of the Year in , it won with 122 votes! DataXpie Sylhet Mylapore, India In , is the winner! Mylapore Yalimart Goa, India In , the Startup of the Year is Goa Filter Coffee Delhi, India In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Delhi EkAnek Networks Karachi, Pakistan The winner in is Karachi Bykea Ahmedabad, India In , is the winner Ahmedabad MageComp Dhaka, Bangladesh The winner in is Dhaka SOLshare Islamabad, Pakistan In Islamabad, is declared the Startup of the Year! TAG Gurgaon, India In , the Startup of the Year is Gurgaon ixigo Bengaluru, India In , is the winner! Bengaluru Prakshep Private Limited Haryana, India couldn’t be beaten for Startup of the Year in ! Footprints Childcare Haryana Kolkata, India In , is the winner! Kolkata Wow! Momo New Delhi, India In , is declared the Startup of the Year! New Delhi Rusk Media Indore, India The winner in is Indore Chattar Patar Kormangala In , is the winner Kormangala Sanctum Technologies Ghaziabad came out as the Startup of the Year in Craftfurnish.com Ghaziabad! Mohali In , the Startup of the Year is Mohali DataKund Mysore The Startup of the Year in is Mysore Excelsoft Karnal came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Dunar Karnal Kolhapur In , is the winner! Kolhapur Zanvar Group Patiya In , the Startup of the Year is Patiya Kloud Project Kathmandu In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kathmandu Vairav Technology Bangalore City, India In is the winner! Bangalore City, PagarBook Ernakulam The winner in is Ernakulam Epixel Solutions Colombo, Sri Lanka couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in MAs Foods Colombo Andheri, India When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year! Andheri DoorMint Kanpur, India came out as the Startup of the Year in ! ServiceWalaa Kanpur Faisalabad In , is the winner! Faisalabad DigiKhata Nasik The Startup of the Year in is Nasik Sahyadri Farms Patna came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Asvin Tech Patna Chennai, India In , is the winner! Chennai Agnikul Cosmos Faridabad, India In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Faridabad UClean Panjim, India The winner in is Panjim TempoGO Ranchi, India In , is the winner Ranchi Osam Dairy Surat, India In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Surat Wishbook Thane, India In , is the winner! Thane Delight Foods Trivandrum, India came out as the Startup of the Year in ! GenRobotic Trivandrum Vijayawada, India In , the Startup of the Year is Vijayawada Eruvaka Technologies Visakhapatnam, India In , Ltd is declared the Startup of the Year! Visakhapatnam Greenline Labs Pvt Ahmadabad In , is the winner! Ahmadabad KiwiQA Services Bandra came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Car Club Bandra Bombay In , is the winner! Bombay Locobuddy Mobile Technology (Sportobuddy) Cochin In , the Startup of the Year is Cochin Tuttifrutti Interactive Gandhinagar In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Gandhinagar Kroop AI Guwahati In , the Startup of the Year is Guwahati GNRC Hospitals Jamshedpur In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Jamshedpur Intelliber Kabul The winner in is Kabul Miracle Shop (Vocinno Technology) Karur In , is the winner Karur Karur Vysya Bank Kochi The winner in is Kochi BestDoc Kozhikode In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kozhikode OfficeKit HR Ludhiana In , the Startup of the Year is Ludhiana Trendy Beat Network Madhapur In , is the winner! Madhapur Head Digital Works Mangalore When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year Mangalore Hangyo Nagpur came out as the Startup of the Year in ! UPrudence Agro Nagpur Rawalpindi The Startup of the Year in is Rawalpindi Pro Options Marketing Rishikesh came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Descatuk Rishikesh Secunderabad couldn’t be beaten for Startup of the Year in Prakriti Biosystems Engineering Secunderabad Tirupur In , is the winner! Tirupur Tubeknit Fashions Udupi The winner in is Udupi Krishitantra Top Startup Cities in Southeast Asia Singapore, Singapore The Startup of the Year in is with 6556 votes! Singapore Cake DeFi Hanoi, Vietnam is the Startup of the Year! It came out ahead with 683 votes. DeFi For You Hanoi Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia came out as the Startup of the Year in with 109 votes! Trambellir Kuala Lumpur Pasig, Philippines When it comes to , . is the Startup of the Year with 110 votes! Pasig Quickreach Inc Bangkok, Thailand couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in , it won with 60 votes! Perception Codes Bangkok Johor Bahru In , the Startup of the Year is . Johor Bahru AGR1 Bandung, Indonesia In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Bandung Prosa Portugal The winner in is . Portugal SCEMAI Tangerang, Indonesia In , is the winner Tangerang Yummy Corp Jakarta, Indonesia In , is the winner! Jakarta Tokocrypto Dki Jakarta, Indonesia In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Dki Jakarta Limakilo Bangkok Metropolis In , is the winner! Bangkok Meticuly Medan The winner in is ! Medan DIKA Manila, Philippines In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Manila PawnHero Phnom Penh, Cambodia In , the Startup of the Year is Phnom Penh vKirirom Bali In , is the winner! Bali Radius App Penang When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year Penang EasyParcel Surabaya came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Super Surabaya Setiabudi, Indonesia The Startup of the Year in is Setiabudi Chilibeli Cebu City came out as the Startup of the Year in MiCab Cebu City! Jawa couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in DAUR Jawa Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam In , is the winner! Ho Chi Minh City Pharmacity Selangor, Malaysia is the Startup of the Year! BabyDash Selangor Jakarta Pusat, Indonesia In , is the winner! Jakarta Pusat StickEarn Semarang When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year! Semarang Food Bear Petaling Jaya, Malaysia The winner in is . Petaling Jaya Deemples Kebayoran Baru, Indonesia couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in ! Yogrt Kebayoran Baru Kuningan The winner in is . Kuningan Prinzio Bukit Merah came out as the Startup of the Year in ! DC Alliance Bukit Merah Huai Khwang In , the Startup of the Year is . Huai Khwang AppMan Co.,Ltd Kuta In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Kuta Gringgo Mandaluyong came out ahead as the Startup of the Year! Work Inspire Mandaluyong Midview City In , is the winner! Midview City BioMers Phuket The Startup of the Year in is ! Phuket Sapahn Yangon, Myanmar The winner in is . Yangon Wave Money Denpasar When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year! Denpasar Revasi Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand The winner in is . Nakhon Ratchasima Siam Lottery co., Ltd Taguig, Philippines In , is the winner! Taguig PayMongo Bogor came out as the Startup of the Year in ! TIRANYX Bogor Senai, Malaysia won as the Startup of the Year. Nutrition Technologies Senai Bekasi Kota couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in ! 8villages Bekasi Kota Top Startup Cities in Middle East Tel Aviv, Israel The Startup of the Year in is with 1,065 votes! Tel Aviv hyro Beirut, Lebanon is the Startup of the Year! It came out ahead with 1,276 votes. Hovi Digital Lab Beirut Riyadh, Saudi Arabia With 350 votes, came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Flicron Riyadh Tel Aviv-yafo, Israel When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year with 167 votes! Tel Aviv-yafo Cymbio Haifa, Israel couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in , it won with 183 votes! Pico Haifa Amman, Jordan In , with 141 votes, is the winner! Amman Edexy Dubai, United Arab Emirates In , the Startup of the Year is with 74 votes. Dubai Ziina Doha, Qatar In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Doha SkipCash Tehran, Iran The winner in is . BeyondBoard AR Tehran Jerusalem, Israel In , is the winner! Jerusalem SolidBlock Rishon Le Zion The Startup of the Year in is ! Rishon Le Zion Passparto Ness Ziona, Israel is the Startup of the Year! Soapy Ness Ziona Kuwait, Kuwait came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Brapper Shop Kuwait Manama, Bahrain couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in ! Doctori Manama Lod, Israel is the winner in ! Phinergy Lod Agudat Israel, Israel When it comes to is the Startup of the Year with [vote ] votes! Agudat Israel, Aqaurius Engines Beersheba, Israel In , the Startup of the Year is . Beersheba Visual Estate Ltd Giv'atayim, Israel In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Giv'atayim WSC Sports Modi'in, Israel The winner in is . Modi'in Loginno Nazareth, Israel In , is the winner! Nazareth AR Guide In Medical Ramat Gan, Israel The Startup of the Year in is . Ramat Gan Datos Health Baghdad When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year! Baghdad Mishwar Khobar In , the Startup of the Year is . Khobar Garage Misgav couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in ! Eden Shield Misgav Sharjah came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Bookends Sharjah Affula In , the Startup of the Year is . Affula eMotion Technologies Bene Beraq, Israel In , is the winner Bene Beraq Reflectiz Caesarea, Israel In , the Startup of the Year is . Caesarea CardiacSense Dubayy In , is declared the Startup of the Year! Dubayy North Ladder Muscat couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in ! iLab Marine Muscat Tirat Carmel In , the Startup of the Year is . Tirat Carmel PassCall Advanced Technologies Hod Hasharon, Israel The winner in is . Hod Hasharon Idomoo Holon, Israel came out ahead as the Startup of the Year! OptimalPlus Holon Jeddah, Saudi Arabia When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year! Jeddah Arabian Combustion Technologies Ramat Hasharon, Israel is the Startup of the Year! Lumen Ramat Hasharon Al Khobar came out as the Startup of the Year in ! Swyft Al Khobar Bet Shemesh In , is the winner! Bet Shemesh Degania Medical Binyamina When it comes to , is the Startup of the Year! Binyamina OncoHost Makkah In , the Startup of the Year is Makkah Scimagine Or Akiva Last but not least, couldn’t be beaten for Startup in the Year in the city of ! WMT Or Akiva More Information: If you’re a winner, please answer ! If you’re a reader, participant, just a curious individual, consider answering one of our interviews . this interview here Read the FAQs about or . Startups here here To see all of the winners you may visit , pick any city and view the name that appears at the top. this site If you’re interested in partnering with us, we invite you to look through some of these or reach out to our business department. unique sponsorship options Perhaps creating your very own tickles your fancy or maybe you have a whole new idea for how we can partner! writing contest Thank you to all of our sponsors! We truly appreciate your contribution to the tech world and thus the future! The Startups Awards are sponsored by: , , , , , , , , , , Blockster Brex FreeCodeCamp LaunchDarkly Coil Udacity Udemy Vercel Asia Pacific Transgender Network Bybit Everscale Network The post was written by Kushal Tamrakar and Valerie Ejegi, edited by Hang Ngo. If you have any questions or concerns or would like to report a discrepancy please email ellen@hackernoon.com.

Meet the Winners of Startups in Asia

Nanotechnology is defined in a number of ways. One such definition is provided by which states nanotechnology as “a branch of technology dealing with the manufacture of objects with dimensions of less than 100 nanometers and the manipulation of individual molecules and atoms”. Collins English Dictionary. Copyright © HarperCollins Publishers Nanotechnology deals with the miniaturization and fabrication of devices on a scale ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. The prefix nano means one-billionth i.e., (1x10-9). was the physicist who discussed the possibility of dealing with molecules directly in his lecture "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom: An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics" at the annual meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959 Richard Feynman American Physical Society Nanotechnology has a number of applications in multidisciplinary fields such as physics, chemistry, biology, sports, health, computer science, and ICT(Information and Communication Technology) to name a few. This article explores the applications of nanotechnology in the fields of computer science and ICT. Fabrication of nano-sized devices called is made possible through nanotechnology tools. Nanomachines are functional devices and capable of performing trivial tasks like sensing, actuation, computing, and data storage. Single nanomachines are only capable of performing trivial tasks. nanomachines Therefore, to perform more complex tasks they must be interconnected to form a network. Nanomachines can be manufactured using three approaches top-down, bottom-up, and bio-hybrid. Approaches to manufacture nanomachines Image Source: Stanford Online In this method atoms and molecules are self-assembled into nano- structures. Hence bottom-up refers to the construction of large objects from smaller building blocks, i.e. construction of nanostructures using atoms and molecules, rather than bulk materials. Bottom-up: Top-down approach is the building of nanostructures and materials by mechanical methods such as lithography, and by bulk technology. The top-down method for processing of nanostructured materials involves starting with a bulk solid and then obtaining a nano-structure by its structural breakdown. Mechanical and thermal methods are also used for the preparation of nanostructured materials from the bulk. Top-down approach: Bio-Hybrid approach is the assembly of nano-sized biological components and manmade nano-structures, to develop new nano-machines. This process includes positioning of the constituent sub-nano building blocks into an assembly of a functional structure. This approach is very expensive and time-consuming as compared to other states of the art of manufacturing technologies. Bio-Hybrid Approach: Molecular Communication: A nano networking technology Image Source: Foundry4 Nano communication network is a novel communication paradigm that enables communication among nanoscale devices at a scale ranging from 1-100 nm. At this scale, the receivers and senders used by traditional wired and wireless communication are not workable. Therefore nanomachines have been developed to realize communication at this tiny scale. Nanomachines are tiny devices that are able to perform trivial tasks and can do complex tasks after forming a network (nano network). Nanomachines can be biological entities or can be synthesized materials. is the paradigm in that utilize molecules for communication among nanomachines. Molecular communication is biologically inspired i.e., it adapts the communication mechanisms already existent in nature for communication among living organisms. Molecular communication (MC) nano communication networks The human body is composed of a large-scale heterogeneous network where molecular communication takes place for intrabody communication. There are many intrabody applications where small-scale communication is necessary e-g targeted drug delivery, BMI (Brain Imaging Interface), tissue engineering and cell repair etc. Various communication and networking aspects of MC are currently being explored by the research community. Molecular communication is as old as the existence of nature, as communication has been taking place between living organisms since then. However, with the advancement in computer networking, the significance of Molecular communication has been brought to light all over. The research on molecular communication from the networking perspective is almost two decades old but still is immature. There are still a number of open issues regarding the design and mathematical modeling of system components that need to be addressed. Communication ranges of Molecular Communication Molecular communication is able to take place in three ranges. (1) Short-range communication using molecular motors is the mechanism where inter-cell and intra cell communication takes place using molecular motors, which are carriers of information encoded molecule. (2) Short-range communication using calcium ions is another mechanism of molecular communication where communication might take place either between physically adjacent cells or distant cells using calcium ions (Ca2+). (3) Long-range communication using pheromones is the communication mechanism that takes place between sender and receiver nanomachines that might be millimeters to kilometers apart. Application domains long-range communication is military field and environmental applications. Molecular Communication reference models In this section, some prominent architectures and conceptual models for MC are explored. We know that the is the conceptual communication model used for traditional wired and wireless networking systems. Researchers in MC have proposed a similar layered model for MC as well. OSI ( Open Systems Interconnection) model consists of five layers i.e., Application Layer, Molecular transport layer, Molecular network layer, Molecular link layer, Signaling sublayer, and Bio-nanomachine sublayer. have described the functionality of each layer in detail and highlight the open research challenges according to each layer. The molecular communication Nakano et al TCP is a connection-oriented protocol used in traditional communication. communication protocol for molecular communication between biological nanomachines is also proposed, to avoid congestion between sender and receiver. TCP-like connection-oriented has been explored extensively. Intra-body molecular communication channels, i.e., nanoscale neuro-spike communication channel, action potential-based cardiomyocyte molecular communication channel, and hormonal molecular communication channel, are introduced. The architecture of is explored to get inspiration for the development of new foundations in molecular communication. Molecular communication inside the human body nanonetworks inside the human body Healthcare applications of Molecular Communication Applications of MC related to health care have can be classified into two groups namely Diagnosis and Treatment. is a therapeutic diagnosis mechanism that has been analytically modeled using molecular communication. ADD (Antibody Mediated Drug Delivery Systems) This will be a cost-effective and reliable drug discovery and optimization model. The accuracy of this model has been confirmed by finite element simulations. In the diagnostics area, nano-sensors, nanophotonics and nano cameras are playing a vital role in the early detection of biological and environmental contaminants in the body. Nanomedicine is the biomedical application that is trending in that top five research areas of nanotechnology. Other biomedical applications of MC include immune system support, medical implants, drug delivery systems, health monitoring, and correcting genetic disorders to name a few. More applications of nanonetworks can be found . here Principles of Molecular Communication Molecular communication protocol consists of information molecules that contain information to be transmitted, sender bio-nano machines that send information molecules, and receiver bio-nano machines that receive information molecules. Other types of molecules might be included in the system such as transport molecules which move information molecules, guide molecules which guide the movement of transport molecules, and interface molecules for selective transport of information molecules. Image Source: Science Direct Different phases of molecular communication are described below: In this phase, sender nanomachines encodes the information into the information molecules in various forms. Encoding: : In this phase sender bio nanomachine releases information molecules in the environment. Sending : It is the phase in which molecules travel from sender nanomachine towards receiver nanomachine. This transport can be either passive or active. Passive transport is the through the diffusion of molecules in the environment without chemical energy, whereas in active transport information molecules bind to molecular motors. Propagation : Transmitted molecules are received from the aqueous medium in this phase usually with the help of chemical receptors. Receiving : In this phase, the captured molecules are decoded by receiver nano-machines into the form of chemical energy. Decoding Molecular Communication Interface A vesicle-based communication interface provides a mechanism to encapsulate messenger molecules in an aqueous medium, which aims to transport different types of information molecules in diverse propagation environments. A liposome is an artificially created spherical vesicle composed of a phospholipid bilayer membrane surrounding a discrete aqueous compartment (an inner aqueous phase); its diameter can be controlled from tens of nanometers to tens of micrometer. The liposomal structure compartmentalizes information molecules from the propagation environment and provides a generic architecture to transport diverse types of information molecules, independent of their biochemical and physical properties. The liposomal structure also protects information molecules from deformation. Molecular Propagation System In Molecular Communication, there exist three types of propagation mechanisms. Walkway, Flow-based and Diffusion-based mechanisms. 1.  In walkway-based propagation, molecules connect the transmitter to the receiver by traveling on predefined pathways using carrier substances such as molecular motors. 2. In a flow-based mechanism, molecules flow towards the receiver in guided and predicted manner. In a flow-based mechanism, carrier entities can also be used for molecular transmission instead of showing random entities. An example of a flow-based mechanism is the bloodstream in the human body (hormones). 3. In the diffusion mechanism, molecules flow in the fluidic medium and can be affected by non-predictable turbulence present in the fluidic medium. Diffusion-based molecular communication is considered to be the most practical means of wireless communication between nanomachines. In diffusion-based communication, the molecules flow from a high concentration region to low concentration regions in fluidic medium. Key components of diffusion-based transmission are transmitter, propagation system and a receiver. Each transmitter has a limited store of messenger molecules. Whenever there is a message to be transmitted, a transmitter emits a specific amount of molecules into the environment. Transmitter: Molecules are released or absorbed by means of molecular flux, which is able to modulate the molecular concentration rate at the transmitter location as a function of time. The amplitude of the transmitted signal defined by the number of released messenger molecules. Each nano-robot has a 0.1 µm3 tankage and has an initial source of 108 molecules of which Q=103-104 molecules are emitted at a time. The prorogation is accomplished by a thermally activated diffusion mechanism, in which flux is achieved from regions of high to low concentrations via random collision with the underlying medium. Messenger molecules propagate in two ways; normal diffusion where interactions and collision among emitted particles is neglected and anomalous propagation where movements of emitted particles can be affected by the collision among interaction among other particles. Propagation system: The particle reception process is accomplished by sensing the messenger molecules in the receiver sensing area. The receiver sensing area is a small surface around the receiver in which the messenger molecules bind to the receiver chemical receptors with high probability. The received nano-machine biochemically reacts with the received information molecules and an electrical inner cell signal is produced as the output. Receiver: Lessons to be learned There is a plethora of applications of Molecular Communication (MC) that need researchers' attention. Research in MC is still in its infancy and there a lot of open research challenges that need to be addressed. MC displays potential
 for enabling complex applications of nanotechnology that
 require the collaboration of very small entities (nanomachines). 
MC in nano-scale communication has three advantages. MC has a number of advantages over traditional electromagnetic communication. It requires very low energy, MC is able to decrease the size of the antenna, and MC has biocompatible characteristics for in vivo systems, as long as harmless molecules are
 used. (Featured image source : Juraj Lenhard from Pixabay )

An Intro to Nanotechnology: What is Molecular Communication? 

Image Source: H2020 FET projects in nanotechnologies Nano network is a novel information and communication technology, which is based on the communication of nano-scale devices. does not merely refer to the reduction in transmitter and receiver size, but it’s the communication protocols between these nanodevices that are novel. Nano network Traditional wired and wireless networking paradigms use electromagnetic signals as a transmission medium. Whereas, nanonetworks utilize to send and receive messages between nanomachines. message encoded molecules The Nanosize Conundrum Computer science has always been used to solve real-world problems. The progress in computing machines can be marked with an increase in computational power and a reduction in the size of the machines. Nanotechnology has made the manufacturing of computing machines possible that are even smaller than human hair and can only be seen under a microscope. These devices are called nanodevices or nanomachines. are capable of solving real-world problems more efficiently as compared to their macro size counterparts. Nanomachines When the computing devices are downscaled to nano size, they grow in number and can work more efficiently together as compared to a single big machine. Image Source: Research gate The network of nanodevices is analogous to the swarm of bees. One bee is weak and only perform simple chores. But when these bees encounter an attack, they quickly mobilize to form a swarm and attack the predator jointly. Similarly,  nanomachines are resource-constrained devices in terms of computation and power due to their minute size. The full potential of these devices can be explored by interconnecting them into the form of a network. A nano network will aid in overcoming the constraints of a single nanodevice by allowing it to coordinate, share, and fuse information with other devices in the network. There are several promising applications of nanonetworks that can provide solutions in the biomedical, industrial, environmental, and military fields. Nano network applications Nanonetworks applications are unlimited and are used extensively in almost every field. These are classified into the following broad groups. Biomedical applications of nanonetworks Image Source: Medium The size of nanodevices makes them feasible for several biomedical and health monitoring applications including diagnostics, treatment, and prevention of diseases. Another advancement in the field of healthcare is the nanomachine being deployed inside the human body which can remotely be controlled from the nanoscale and over the internet by an external user (healthcare provider). In the diagnostics area nano-sensors, nanophotonics and nano cameras are playing a vital role in the early detection of biological and environmental contaminants in the body. Connecting the human body with macro-scale devices and networks for data collection is not feasible as 1) the high-frequency electromagnetic waves can interfere with the normal functioning of the body and 2) large devices connected to the body will hinder the mobility of the patient. Thanks to nanotechnology the size of machines is so small that these can be injected into the bloodstream or even swallowed. Don't worry! these machines are non-invasive and made from biocompatible and biodegradable materials.  Following are some of the potential biomedical applications: Immune system support Medical implants Drug delivery systems Continuous Health monitoring Correcting genetic disorders Nanomedicine Industrial applications of nanonetworks Nanodevices are showing potential in a number of industrial and consumer good applications.  Interconnected nanomachines are used by the video gaming industry for increased thrill and realistic gaming experience. Micro-electromechanical System (MEMS) aims at developing small scale systems e-g Lab-on-a-chip (LOC). A LOC is typically a few micrometers to millimeters in size. It provides the functionality of transporting molecules from one location to another, mixing different types of molecules, and separating specific kinds of molecules from a mixture. Some other industrial and consumer goods applications are listed below Food and water quality control Functionalized materials and fabrics Sports and video gaming Cosmetics Military Applications of nanonetworks Nanotechnology also has several applications in the military field. Dense deployment of nanonetworks in large areas helps in monitoring and actuation of the battlefield while soldier performance can be monitored by deploying nano-networks in the human body. Nanodevices such as imperceptible nano cameras, ultrasonic nano phones, and biological nano-sensors are devices that show potential in battlefield monitoring and actuation. Environmental Applications of Nanodevices Image Source: Agriculture News The bio-inspired nature of nanotechnology makes it feasible to detect and sense contaminated materials found in nature. The problem of handling and dumping garbage is increasing around the world; this problem can be dealt with by a biodegradation process that uses nano-networks. Animals and biodiversity control process can be realized with nanonetworks using pheromones. This results in interaction with certain animals and also to control their presence in particular areas. Nanonetworks can also be used to monitor air, thus controlling air pollution and nano filters can be developed to improve air quality and remove harmful materials from the air. ARCHITECTURE OF NANONETWORKS Nano network is comprised of several nano-scale devices such as nano transmitter, nano receiver, nano router, and other specialized nanodevices to perform exclusive tasks like sensing, actuation, monitoring, and control. The composition of nanonetworks depends upon the prospective application requirements. For example, a biomedical application like nano surgeries might need specialized nanodevices like nanorobots along with essential components of the nano network. Nano transmitters, nano receivers, and nano routers are the essential components of nanonetwork, however, a nanonetwork might not necessarily contain all of the below-mentioned nanodevices. Following is a detailed classification of nanomachines that can be part of nanonetworks according to application requirements. Nano Transmitters Nano transmitters are specialized nanomachines that are capable of sending encoded message molecules into the nano network environment. Information molecules can be sent into the environment by two types of nano transmitters, pre-encoded nano transmitters, and generic nano transmitters. Pre-encoded nano transmitters have encoded molecules stored in their compartment at the time of fabrication. Nanosystems that can be used as pre-encoded nano transmitters are artificially synthesized cells, genetically engineered biological cells, or artificial cells. For example, lipid-based liposomes (i.e., molecule carrying enclosure) and polymer-based nanospheres and nanocapsules can be used as nano transmitters. Generic nano transmitters mimic natural cells such as bacteriophage, viruses, etc. Unlike pre-encoded nano transmitters, the message molecule is synthesized inside the nano transmitter according to the trigger signal. has been done by University of Cambridge researchers. A detailed review of physical design options for nano transmitters Nano Receiver A nano receiver detects the transmitted signal from the environment, further processes it, and produces an output signal in response. Same as nano transmitters, nano receivers take up the molecule from the environment, process it via a predefined biochemical algorithm that decodes the signal. The decoded signal is then used to initiate an appropriate response in the environment e-g, stopping, initiating drug delivery sessions, synthesize or release some molecules, internal reconfiguration, or other biochemical reactions. Nano Sensor A nanosensor is a simple nanodevice that senses the environment to detect the presence of biological components or changes in environmental conditions like light, pH level, temperature. Nanosensors can coordinate the changes in the environment with other nanodevices, which may work as a trigger signal to initiate an appropriate response. Nano Robot Nanorobots are nanodevices that have actuation capabilities in addition to the sensing ability. Nanorobot consists of sensors, actuators, information processing unit, memory unit, and power unit that make nanorobots a powerful device. Nanorobots can manipulate the surrounding environment by performing actuation functionalities like precise delivery of therapeutic molecules to diseased cells. Nano controller Nano controllers are specialized nanodevices that are used to monitor and control other devices in the nano network. Their tasks may include monitoring the drug release process to make sure that a controlled amount of drug is released or to initiate/stop a process in the nano network. Nano Router Nano routers are more sophisticated nanodevices in terms of power, storage, and computation capacity. They are in charge of aggregating and processing information coming from various nanodevices in the network. Nanotechnology will let us build computers that are incredibly powerful. We'll have more power in the volume of a sugar cube than exists in the entire world today - Ralph Merkle

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