Magnestar

magnestar

Identifying Axion Conversion in Compact Star Magnetospheres With Radio-Wave Polarization Signatures

Steam, Its Generation and Use by Babcock & Wilcox Company, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . BOILER ROOM PIPING here BOILER ROOM PIPING In the design of a steam plant, the piping system should receive the most careful consideration. Aside from the constructive details, good practice in which is fairly well established, the important factors are the size of the piping to be employed and the methods utilized in avoiding difficulties from the presence in the system of water of condensation and the means employed toward reducing radiation losses. Engineering opinion varies considerably on the question of material of pipes and fittings for different classes of work, and the following is offered simply as a suggestion of what constitutes good representative practice. All pipe should be of wrought iron or soft steel. Pipe at present is made in “standard”, “extra strong” and “double extra strong” weights. Until recently, a fourth weight approximately 10 per cent lighter than standard and known as “Merchants” was built but the use of this pipe has largely gone out of practice. Pipe sizes, unless otherwise stated, are given in terms of nominal internal diameter. gives the dimensions and some general data on standard and extra strong wrought-iron pipe. [76] Table 62 Dimensions are nominal and except where noted are in inches. In connection with pipe sizes, , giving certain tube data may be found to be of service. Table 63 Dimensions are nominal and except where noted are in inches. Pipe Material and Thickness—For saturated steam pressures not exceeding 160 pounds, all pipe over 14 inches should be 3⁄8 inch thick O. D. pipe. All other pipe should be standard full weight, except high pressure feed and blow-off lines, which should be extra strong. [77] For pressures above 150 pounds up to 200 pounds with superheated steam, all high pressure feed and blow-off lines, high pressure steam lines having threaded flanges, and straight runs and bends of high pressure steam lines 6 inches and under having Van Stone joints should be extra strong. All piping 7 inches and over having Van Stone joints should be full weight soft flanging pipe of special quality. Pipe 14 inches and over should be 3⁄8 inch thick O. D. pipe. All pipes for these pressures not specified above should be full weight pipe. Flanges—For saturated steam, 160 pounds working pressure, all flanges for wrought-iron pipe should be cast-iron threaded. All high pressure threaded flanges should have the diameter thickness and drilling in accordance with the “manufacturer’s standard” for “extra heavy” flanges. All low pressure flanges should have diameter, thickness and drilling in accordance with “manufacturer’s standard” for “standard flanges.” The flanges on high pressure lines should be counterbored to receive pipe and prevent the threads from shouldering. The pipe should be screwed through the flange at least 1⁄16 inch, placed in machine and after facing off the end one smooth cut should be taken over the face of the flange to make it square with the axis of the pipe. For pressures above 160 pounds, where superheated steam is used, all high pressure steam lines 4 inches and over should have solid rolled steel flanges and special upset lapped joints. In the manufacture of such joints, the ends of the pipe are heated and upset against the face of a holding mandrel conforming to the shape of the flange, the lapped portion of the pipe being flattened out against the face of the mandrel, the upsetting action maintaining the desired thickness of the lap. When cool, both sides of the lap are faced to form a uniform thickness and an even bearing against flange and gasket. The joint, therefore, is a strictly metal to metal joint, the flanges merely holding the lapped ends of the pipe against the gasket. A special grade of soft flanging pipe is selected to prevent breaking. The bending action is a severe test of the pipe and if it withstands the bending process and the pressure tests, the reliability of the joint is assured. Such a joint is called a Van Stone joint, though many modifications and improvements have been made since the joint was originally introduced. The diameter and thickness of such flanges should be special extra heavy. Such flanges should be turned to diameter, their fronts faced and the backs machined in lieu of spot facing. In lines other than given for pressures over 150 pounds, all flanges for wrought-iron pipe should be threaded. All threaded flanges for high pressure superheated lines 3½ inches and under should be “semi-steel” extra heavy. Flanges for other than steam lines should be manufacturer’s standard extra heavy. Welded flanges are frequently used in place of those described with satisfactory results. Fittings—For saturated steam under pressures up to 160 pounds, all fittings 3½ inches and under should be screwed. Fittings 4 inches and over should have flanged ends. Fittings for this pressure should be of cast iron and should have heavy leads and full taper threads. Flanged fittings in high pressure lines should be extra heavy, and in low pressure lines standard weight. Where possible in high pressure flanges and fittings, bolt surfaces should be spot faced to provide suitable bearing for bolt heads and nuts. Fittings for superheated steam up to 70 degrees at pressures above 160 pounds are sometimes of cast iron. For superheat above 70 degrees such fittings should be “steel castings” and in general these fittings are recommended for any degree of superheat. Fittings for other than high pressure work may be of cast iron, except where superheated steam is carried, where they should be of “wrought steel” or “hard metal”. Fittings 3½ inches and under should be screwed, 4 inches and over flanged. [78] Flanges for pressures up to 160 pounds in pipes and fittings for low pressure lines, and any fittings for high pressure lines should have plain faces, smooth tool finish, scored with V-shaped grooves for rubber gaskets. High pressure line flanges should have raised faces, projecting the full available diameter inside the bolt holes. These faces should be similarly scored. All pipe ½ inch and under should have ground joint unions suitable for the pressure required. Pipe ¾ inch and over should have cast-iron flanged unions. Unions are to be preferred to wrought-iron couplings wherever possible to facilitate dismantling. Valves—For 150 pounds working pressure, saturated steam, all valves 2 inches and under may have screwed ends; 2½ inches and over should be flanged. All high pressure steam valves 6 inches and over should have suitable by-passes. All valves for use with superheated steam should be of special construction. For pressures above 160 pounds, where the superheat does not exceed 70 degrees, valve bodies, caps and yokes are sometimes made of cast iron, though ordinarily semi-steel will give better satisfaction. The spindles of such valves should be of bronze and there should be special necks with condensing chambers to prevent the superheated steam from blowing through the packing. For pressures over 160 pounds and degrees of superheat above 70, all valves 3 inches and over should have valve bodies, caps and yokes of steel castings. Spindles should be of some non-corrosive metal, such as “monel metal”. Seat rings should be removable of the same non-corrosive metal as should the spindle seats and plug faces. All salt water valves should have bronze spindles, sleeves and packing seats. The suggestions as to flanges for different classes of service made on page hold as well for valve flanges, except that such flanges are not scored. 311 Automatic stop and check valves are coming into general use with boilers and such use is compulsory under the boiler regulations of certain communities. Where used, they should be preferably placed directly on the boiler nozzle. Where two or more boilers are on one line, in addition to the valve at the boiler, whether this be an automatic valve or a gate valve, there should be an additional gate valve on each boiler branch at the main steam header. Relief valves should be furnished at the discharge side of each feed pump and on the discharge side of each feed heater of the closed type. Feed Lines—Feed lines should in all instances be made of extra strong pipe due to the corrosive action of hot feed water. While it has been suggested above that cast-iron threaded flanges should be used in such lines, due to the sudden expansion of such pipe in certain instances cast-iron threaded flanges crack before they become thoroughly heated and expand, and for this reason cast-steel threaded flanges will give more satisfactory results. In some instances, wrought-steel and Van Stone joints have been used in feed lines and this undoubtedly is better practice than the use of cast-steel threaded work, though the additional cost is not warranted in all stations. Feed valves should always be of the globe pattern. A gate valve cannot be closely regulated and often clatters owing to the pulsations of the feed pump. Gaskets—For steam and water lines where the pressure does not exceed 160 pounds, wire insertion rubber gaskets 1⁄16 inch thick will be found to give good service. For low pressure lines, canvas insertion black rubber gaskets are ordinarily used. For oil lines special gaskets are necessary. For pressure above 160 pounds carrying superheated steam, corrugated steel gaskets extending the full available diameter inside of the bolt holes give good satisfaction. For high pressure water lines wire inserted rubber gaskets are used, and for low pressure flanged joints canvas inserted rubber gaskets. Size of Steam Lines—The factors affecting the proper size of steam lines are the radiation from such lines and the velocity of steam within them. As the size of the steam line increases, there will be an increase in the radiation. As the size decreases, the steam velocity and the pressure drop for a given quantity of steam naturally increases. [79] There is a marked tendency in modern practice toward higher steam velocities, particularly in the case of superheated steam. It was formerly considered good practice to limit this velocity to 6000 feet per minute but this figure is to-day considered low. In practice the limiting factor in the velocity advisable is the allowable pressure drop. In the description of the action of the throttling calorimeter, it has been demonstrated that there is no loss accompanying a drop in pressure, the difference in energy between the higher and lower pressures appearing as heat, which, in the case of steam flowing through a pipe, may evaporate any condensation present or may be radiated from the pipe. A decrease in pipe area decreases the radiating surface of the pipe and thus the possible condensation. As the heat liberated by the pressure drop is utilized in overcoming or diminishing the tendency toward condensation and the heat loss through radiation, the steam as it enters the prime mover will be drier or more highly superheated where high steam velocities are used than where they are lower, and if enough excess pressure is carried at the boilers to maintain the desired pressure at the prime mover, the pressure drop results in an actual saving rather than a loss. The whole is analogous to standard practice in electrical distributing systems where generator voltage is adjusted to suit the loss in the feeder lines. In modern practice, with superheated steam, velocities of 15,000 feet per minute are not unusual and this figure is very frequently exceeded. Piping System Design—With the proper size of pipe to be used determined, the most important factor is the provision for the removal of water of condensation that will occur in any system. Such condensation cannot be wholly overcome and if the water of condensation is carried to the prime mover, difficulties will invariably result. Water is practically incompressible and its effect when traveling at high velocities differs little from that of a solid body of equal weight, hence impact against elbows, valves or other obstructions, is the equivalent of a heavy hammer blow that may result in the fracture of the pipe. If there is not sufficient water in the system to produce this result, it will certainly cause knocking and vibration in the pipe, resulting eventually in leaky joints. Where the water reaches the prime mover, its effect will vary from disagreeable knocking to disruption. Too frequently when there are disastrous results from such a cause the boilers are blamed for delivering wet steam when, as a matter of fact, the evil is purely a result of poor piping design, the most common cause of such an action being the pocketing of the water in certain parts of the piping from whence it is carried along in slugs by the steam. The action is particularly severe if steam is admitted to a cold pipe containing water, as the water may then form a partial vacuum by condensing the steam and be projected at a very high velocity through the pipes producing a characteristic sharp metallic knock which often causes bursting of the pipe or fittings. The amount of water present through condensation may be appreciated when it is considered that uncovered 6-inch pipe 150 feet long carrying 3600 pounds of high pressure steam per hour will condense approximately 6 per cent of the total steam carried through radiation. It follows that efficient means of removing condensation water are absolutely imperative and the following suggestions as to such means may be of service: The pitch of all pipe should be in the direction of the flow of steam. Wherever a rise is necessary, a drain should be installed. All main headers and important branches should end in a drop leg and each such drop leg and any low points in the system should be connected to the drainage pump. A similar connection should be made to every fitting where there is danger of a water pocket. Branch lines should never be taken from the bottom of a main header but where possible should be taken from the top. Each engine supply pipe should have its own separator placed as near the throttle as possible. Such separators should be drained to the drainage system. Check valves are frequently placed in drain pipes to prevent steam from entering any portion of the system that may be shut off. Valves should be so located that they cannot form water pockets when either open or closed. Globe valves will form a water pocket in the piping to which they are connected unless set with the stem horizontal, while gate valves may be set with the spindle vertical or at an angle. Where valves are placed directly on the boiler nozzle, a drain should be provided above them. High pressure drains should be trapped to both feed heaters and waste headers. Traps and meters should be provided with by-passes. Cylinder drains, heater blow-offs and drains, boiler blow-offs and similar lines should be led to waste. The ends of cylinder drains should not extend below the surface of water, for on starting up or on closing the throttle valve with the drains open, water may be drawn back into the cylinders. Covering—Magnesia, canvas covered. For calculating radiation for pressure and temperature other than 160 pounds, and 60 degrees, use B. t. u. figures for one degree difference. Radiation from Pipes—The evils of the presence of condensed steam in piping systems have been thoroughly discussed above and in some of the previous articles. Condensation resulting from radiation, while it cannot be wholly obviated, can, by proper installation, be greatly reduced. Bare pipe will radiate approximately 3 B. t. u. per hour per square foot of exposed surface per one degree of difference in temperature between the steam contained and the external air. This figure may be reduced to from 0.3 to 0.4 B. t. u. for the same conditions by a 1½ inch insulating covering. gives the radiation losses for bare and covered pipes with different thicknesses of magnesia covering. Table 64 Many experiments have been made as to the relative efficiencies of different kinds of covering. gives some approximately relative figures based on one inch covering from experiments by Paulding, Jacobus, Brill and others. Table 65 Based on one-inch covering. The following suggestions may be of service: Exposed radiating surfaces of all pipes, all high pressure steam flanges, valve bodies and fittings, heaters and separators, should be covered with non-conducting material wherever such covering will improve plant economy. All main steam lines, engine and boiler branches, should be covered with 2 inches of 85 per cent carbonate of magnesia or the equivalent. Other lines may be covered with one inch of the same material. All covering should be sectional in form and large surfaces should be covered with blocks, except where such material would be difficult to install, in which case plastic material should be used. In the case of flanges the covering should be tapered back from the flange in order that the bolts may be removed. All surfaces should be painted before the covering is applied. Canvas is ordinarily placed over the covering, held in place by wrought-iron or brass bands. Expansion and Support of Pipe—It is highly important that the piping be so run that there will be no undue strains through the action of expansion. Certain points are usually securely anchored and the expansion of the piping at other points taken care of by providing supports along which the piping will slide or by means of flexible hangers. Where pipe is supported or anchored, it should be from the building structure and not from boilers or prime movers. Where supports are furnished, they should in general be of any of the numerous sliding supports that are available. Expansion is taken care of by such a method of support and by the providing of large radius bends where necessary. It was formerly believed that piping would actually expand under steam temperatures about one-half the theoretical amount due to the fact that the exterior of the pipe would not reach the full temperature of the steam contained. It would appear, however from recent experiments that such actual expansion will in the case of well-covered pipe be very nearly the theoretical amount. In one case noted, a steam header 293 feet long when heated under a working pressure of 190 pounds, the steam superheated approximately 125 degrees, expanded 8¾ inches; the theoretical amount of expansion under the conditions would be approximately 935⁄64 inches. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Babcock & Wilcox Company (2007). Steam, Its Generation and Use. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22657/pg22657-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

BOILER ROOM PIPING

Steam, Its Generation and Use by Babcock & Wilcox Company, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . BRICKWORK BOILER SETTINGS here BRICKWORK BOILER SETTINGS A consideration of the losses in boiler efficiency, due to the effects of excess air, clearly indicates the necessity of maintaining the brick setting of a boiler tight and free from air leaks. In view of the temperatures to which certain portions of such a setting are subjected, the material to be used in its construction must be of the best procurable. Boiler settings to-day consist almost universally of brickwork—two kinds being used, namely, red brick and fire brick. The red brick should only be used in such portions of the setting as are well protected from the heat. In such location, their service is not so severe as that of fire brick and ordinarily, if such red brick are sound, hard, well burned and uniform, they will serve their purpose. The fire brick should be selected with the greatest care, as it is this portion of the setting that has to endure the high temperatures now developed in boiler practice. To a great extent, the life of a boiler setting is dependent upon the quality of the fire brick used and the care exercised in its laying. The best fire brick are manufactured from the fire clays of Pennsylvania. South and west from this locality the quality of fire clay becomes poorer as the distance increases, some of the southern fire clays containing a considerable percentage of iron oxide. Until very recently, the important characteristic on which to base a judgment of the suitability of fire brick for use in connection with boiler settings has been considered the melting point, or the temperature at which the brick will liquify and run. Experience has shown, however, that this point is only important within certain limits and that the real basis on which to judge material of this description is, from the boiler man’s standpoint, the quality of plasticity under a given load. This tendency of a brick to become plastic occurs at a temperature much below the melting point and to a degree that may cause the brick to become deformed under the stress to which it is subjected. The allowable plastic or softening temperature will naturally be relative and dependent upon the stress to be endured. With the plasticity the determining factor, the perfect fire brick is one whose critical point of plasticity lies well above the working temperature of the fire. It is probable that there are but few brick on the market which would not show, if tested, this critical temperature at the stress met with in arch construction at a point less than 2400 degrees. The fact that an arch will stand for a long period under furnace temperatures considerably above this point is due entirely to the fact that its temperature as a whole is far below the furnace temperature and only about 10 per cent of its cross section nearest the fire approaches the furnace temperature. This is borne out by the fact that arches which are heated on both sides to the full temperature of an ordinary furnace will first bow down in the middle and eventually fall. A method of testing brick for this characteristic is given in the Technologic Paper No. 7 of the Bureau of Standards dealing with “The testing of clay refractories with special reference to their load carrying capacity at furnace temperatures.” Referring to the test for this specific characteristic, this publication recommends the following: “When subjected to the load test in a manner substantially as described in this bulletin, at 1350 degrees centigrade (2462 degrees Fahrenheit), and under a load of 50 pounds per square inch, a standard fire brick tested on end should show no serious deformation and should not be compressed more than one inch, referred to the standard length of nine inches.” In the Bureau of Standards test for softening temperature, or critical temperature of plasticity under the specified load, the brick are tested on end. In testing fire brick for boiler purposes such a method might be criticised, because such a test is a compression test and subject to errors from unequal bearing surfaces causing shear. Furthermore, a series of samples, presumably duplicates, will not fail in the same way, due to the mechanical variation in the manufacture of the brick. Arches that fail through plasticity show that the tensile strength of the brick is important, this being evidenced by the fact that the bottom of a wedge brick in an arch that has failed is usually found to be wider than the top and the adjacent bricks are firmly cemented together. A better method of testing is that of testing the brick as a beam subjected to its own weight and not on end. This method has been used for years in Germany and is recommended by the highest authorities in ceramics. It takes into account the failure by tension in the brick as well as by compression and thus covers the tension element which is important in arch construction. The plastic point under a unit stress of 100 pounds per square inch, which may be taken as the average maximum arch stress, should be above 2800 degrees to give perfect results and should be above 2400 degrees to enable the brick to be used with any degree of satisfaction. The other characteristics by which the quality of a fire brick is to be judged are: Fusion point. In view of the fact that the critical temperature of plasticity is below the fusion point, this is only important as an indication from high fusion point of a high temperature of plasticity. Hardness. This is a relative quality based on an arbitrary scale of 10 and is an indication of probable cracking and spalling. Expansion. The lineal expansion per brick in inches. This characteristic in conjunction with hardness is a measure of the physical movement of the brick as affecting a mass of brickwork, such movement resulting in cracked walls, etc. The expansion will vary between wide limits in different brick and provided such expansion is not in excess of, say, .05 inch in a 9-inch brick, when measured at 2600 degrees, it is not particularly important in a properly designed furnace, though in general the smaller the expansion the better. Compression. The strength necessary to cause crushing of the brick at the center of the 4½ inch face by a steel block one inch square. The compression should ordinarily be low, a suggested standard being that a brick show signs of crushing at 7500 pounds. Size of Nodules. The average size of flint grains when the brick is carefully crushed. The scale of these sizes may be considered: Small, size of anthracite rice; large, size of anthracite pea. Ratio of Nodules. The percentage of a given volume occupied by the flint grains. This scale may be considered: High, 90 to 100 per cent; medium, 50 to 90 per cent; low, 10 to 50 per cent. The statement of characteristics suggested as desirable, are for arch purposes where the hardest service is met. For side wall purposes the compression and hardness limit may be raised considerably and the plastic point lowered. Aside from the physical properties by which a fire brick is judged, it is sometimes customary to require a chemical analysis of the brick. Such an analysis is only necessary as determining the amount of total basic fluxes (K2O, Na2O, CaO, MgO and FeO). These fluxes are ordinarily combined into one expression, indicated by the symbol RO. This total becomes important only above 0.2 molecular equivalent as expressed in ceramic empirical formulae, and this limit should not be exceeded. [75] From the nature of fire brick, their value can only be considered from a relative standpoint. Generally speaking, what are known as first-grade fire brick may be divided into three classes, suitable for various conditions of operation, as follows: Class A. For stoker-fired furnaces where high overloads are to be expected or where other extreme conditions of service are apt to occur. Class B. For ordinary stoker settings where there will be no excessive overloads required from the boiler or any hand-fired furnaces where the rates of driving will be high for such practice. Class C. For ordinary hand-fired settings where the presumption is that the boilers will not be overloaded except at rare intervals and for short periods only. gives the characteristics of these three classes according to the features determining the quality. indicates that the hardness of the brick in general increases with the poorer qualities. Provided the hardness is sufficient to enable the brick to withstand its load, additional hardness is a detriment rather than an advantage. Table 61 This table An approximate determination of the quality of a fire brick may be made from the appearance of a fracture. Where such a fracture is open, clean, white and flinty, the brick in all probability is of a good quality. If this fracture has the fine uniform texture of bread, the brick is probably poor. In considering the heavy duty of brick in boiler furnaces, experience shows that arches are the only part that ordinarily give trouble. These fail from the following causes: Bad workmanship in laying up of brick. This feature is treated below. The tendency of a brick to become plastic at a temperature below the fusing point. The limits of allowable plastic temperature have already been pointed out. Spalling. This action occurs on the inner ends of combustion arches where they are swept by gases at a high velocity at the full furnace temperature. The most troublesome spalling arises through cold air striking the heated brickwork. Failure from this cause is becoming rare, due to the large increase in number of stoker installations in which rapid temperature changes are to a great degree eliminated. Furthermore, there are a number of brick on the market practically free from such defects and where a new brick is considered, it can be tried out and if the defect exists, can be readily detected and the brick discarded. Failures of arches from the expansive power of brick are also rare, due to the fact that there are a number of brick in which the expansion is well within the allowable limits and the ease with which such defects may be determined before a brick is used. Failures through chemical disintegration. Failure through this cause is found only occasionally in brick containing a high percentage of iron oxide. With the grade of brick selected best suited to the service of the boiler to be set, the other factor affecting the life of the setting is the laying. It is probable that more setting difficulties arise from the improper workmanship in the laying up of brick than from poor material, and to insure a setting which will remain tight it is necessary that the masonry work be done most carefully. This is particularly true where the boiler is of such a type as to require combustion arches in the furnace. Red brick should be laid in a thoroughly mixed mortar composed of one volume of Portland cement, 3 volumes of unslacked lime and 16 volumes of clear sharp sand. Not less than 2½ bushels of lime should be used in the laying up of 1000 brick. Each brick should be thoroughly embedded and all joints filled. Where red brick and fire brick are both used in the same wall, they should be carried up at the same time and thoroughly bonded to each other. All fire brick should be dry when used and protected from moisture until used. Each brick should be dipped in a thin fire clay wash, “rubbed and shoved” into place, and tapped with a wooden mallet until it touches the brick next below it. It must be recognized that fire clay is not a cement and that it has little or no holding power. Its action is that of a filler rather than a binder and no fire-clay wash should be used which has a consistency sufficient to permit the use of a trowel. All fire-brick linings should be laid up four courses of headers and one stretcher. Furnace center walls should be entirely of fire brick. If the center of such walls are built of red brick, they will melt down and cause the failure of the wall as a whole. Fire-brick arches should be constructed of selected brick which are smooth, straight and uniform. The frames on which such arches are built, called arch centers, should be constructed of batten strips not over 2 inches wide. The brick should be laid on these centers in courses, not in rings, each joint being broken with a bond equal to the length of half a brick. Each course should be first tried in place dry, and checked with a straight edge to insure a uniform thickness of joint between courses. Each brick should be dipped on one side and two edges only and tapped into place with a mallet. Wedge brick courses should be used only where necessary to keep the bottom faces of the straight brick course in even contact with the centers. When such contact cannot be exactly secured by the use of wedge brick, the straight brick should lean away from the center of the arch rather than toward it. When the arch is approximately two-thirds completed, a trial ring should be laid to determine whether the key course will fit. When some cutting is necessary to secure such a fit, it should be done on the two adjacent courses on the side of the brick away from the key. It is necessary that the keying course be a true fit from top to bottom, and after it has been dipped and driven it should not extend below the surface of the arch, but preferably should have its lower ledge one-quarter inch above this surface. After fitting, the keys should be dipped, replaced loosely, and the whole course driven uniformly into place by means of a heavy hammer and a piece of wood extending the full length of the keying course. Such a driving in of this course should raise the arch as a whole from the center. The center should be so constructed that it may be dropped free of the arch when the key course is in place and removed from the furnace without being burned out. Care of Brickwork—Before a boiler is placed in service, it is essential that the brickwork setting be thoroughly and properly dried, or otherwise the setting will invariably crack. The best method of starting such a process is to block open the boiler damper and the ashpit doors as soon as the brickwork is completed and in this way maintain a free circulation of air through the setting. If possible, such preliminary drying should be continued for several days before any fire is placed in the furnace. When ready for the drying out fire, wood should be used at the start in a light fire which may be gradually built up as the walls become warm. After the walls have become thoroughly heated, coal may be fired and the boiler placed in service. As already stated, the life of a boiler setting is dependent to a large extent upon the material entering into its construction and the care with which such material is laid. A third and equally important factor in the determining of such life is the care given to the maintaining of the setting in good condition after the boiler is placed in operation. This feature is discussed more fully in the chapter dealing with general boiler room management. Steel Casings—In the chapter dealing with the losses operating against high efficiencies as indicated by the heat balance, it has been shown that a considerable portion of such losses is due to radiation and to air infiltration into the boiler setting. These losses have been variously estimated from 2 to 10 per cent, depending upon the condition of the setting and the amount of radiation surface, the latter in turn being dependent upon the size of the boiler used. In the modern efforts after the highest obtainable plant efficiencies much has been done to reduce such losses by the use of an insulated steel casing covering the brickwork. In an average size boiler unit the use of such casing, when properly installed, will reduce radiation losses from one to two per cent., over what can be accomplished with the best brick setting without such casing and, in addition, prevent the loss due to the infiltration of air, which may amount to an additional five per cent., as compared with brick settings that are not maintained in good order. Steel plate, or steel plate backed by asbestos mill-board, while acting as a preventative against the infiltration of air through the boiler setting, is not as effective from the standpoint of decreasing radiation losses as a casing properly insulated from the brick portion of the setting by magnesia block and asbestos mill-board. A casing which has been found to give excellent results in eliminating air leakage and in the reduction of radiation losses is clearly illustrated on page . 306 Many attempts have been made to use some material other than brick for boiler settings but up to the present nothing has been found that may be considered successful or which will give as satisfactory service under severe conditions as properly laid brickwork. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Babcock & Wilcox Company (2007). Steam, Its Generation and Use. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22657/pg22657-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

BRICKWORK BOILER SETTINGS

Scientific American, Vol. XXXVII.—No. 2. [New Series.], July 14, 1877 by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . Bleaching Silk and Wool. here Bleaching Silk and Wool. The methods now in use for bleaching silk, wool, and all animal fibers, such as sulphurous acid, alkalies, soap, etc., are so imperfect that Tessié du Motay has patented the following process, involving the use of binoxide of barium, with or without the addition of permanganates. The binoxide of barium is pulverized and subjected to the action of carbonic acid to remove any unconverted caustic baryta present. It is then thrown into boiling water, and after the bath has partially cooled the materials to be bleached are introduced and the bath kept at a temperature of 86° Fah. to 194° Fah. for two hours; silk from wild silkworms requiring a higher temperature than wool, goat's hair, and the like. It is then taken out and washed, put into an acid bath, then washed again. If necessary, the barium bath is repeated, as also the subsequent washings. If this second bath of binoxide of barium does not produce the requisite whiteness, it is introduced into a solution of permanganic acid or permanganate of magnesia before the last washing. Binoxide of Barium, BaO2, is made by subjecting the oxide or caustic baryta, BaO, to a stream of oxygen or common air at a high temperature. Its bleaching action is probably due to the formation of peroxide of hydrogen in solution in the bath. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2012). Scientific American, Vol. XXXVII. —No. 2. [New Series.], July 14, 1877. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/38481/pg38481-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

Bleaching Silk and Wool

BOILER FEED WATER

Scientific American Supplement, No. 392, July 7, 1883 by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . VINEGAR. here VINEGAR. Hermann Kratzer, of Leipsic, communicates the following practical information on the clarification and purification of vinegar to the Neueste Erfindungen und Erfahrungen: If vinegar has an unpleasant odor, which is rarer now that the vinegar manufacture has reached such a state of perfection, it may be removed as follows: Well burned and finely pulverized wood charcoal is put into the bottles containing the vinegar, the proportions being 8 grammes of charcoal to a liter of vinegar, or one ounce to the gallon. It is shaken several times very thoroughly, then left standing three or four days, and the vinegar filtered through a linen cloth. Vinegar treated in this manner will be found to have completely lost its unpleasant odor. I have found that when I used blood charcoal or bone coal in place of wood coal it was still more efficient; but it must be mentioned that when they are used they must be purified as follows before using: Charcoal from blood contains potash and hence it is necessary to wash it with distilled water and dry it before using it. Bone coal (also called bone black, animal charcoal, etc.) contains on an average 10 per cent. of nitrogenous and hydrogenated carbon, 8 per cent. of carbonate of lime, 78 per cent. of phosphate of lime, besides phosphate of magnesia, sulphate of lime, soluble salts, etc. Before using, it should be treated with dilute hydrochloric acid until it does not effervesce any more. The bone coal is then left to stand for 24 or 30 hours and at the end of this time is washed with distilled water until the wash water no longer reddens a blue piece of litmus paper, i.e., until every trace of hydrochloric acid has been removed from the bone coal. Wood charcoal may be treated in like manner. When this coal is perfectly dry it is employed in the same proportions as the other, 8 to 1,000, the operation being exactly the same. He turns next to the clarification of the vinegar. It happens everywhere that vinegar instead of being clear is sometimes turbid. This is due to particles of yeast dissolved in the vinegar that have not yet settled. To remove this kind of turbidity it is customary to use oak or beech shavings that have been washed in hot water and then dried. These shavings, which must be very long and extremely thin, are put in a barrel with a second and perforated bottom, to a depth of 12 to 34 inches. The vinegar that runs through them deposits its slimy constituents on the shavings and becomes perfectly clear, and presents to the eye a pleasing appearance. To this generally known method I would add a few more: I take a ½ kilo of well pulverized animal charcoal (black burned bones) to 7/8 of a hectoliter of vinegar (1 lb. to 20 gallons), and stir it well with a wooden rod; or, if the vinegar is in bottles, I shake it a long time after putting the animal charcoal in the bottle, and repeat it several times. After three or four days I finally filter the vinegar through linen, when the filtrate will exhibit the desired clearness. The best way to clarify vinegar is with isinglass. It is first broken up, then swelled for a day in vinegar (17 or 18 grammes to the liter), then 2 liters of vinegar are added and the mass boiled until the isinglass is completely dissolved. Such a solution as this (½ ounce to 3 quarts) is mixed with 10¼ hectoliters (250 gallons) of turbid vinegar and well stirred through it. After the expiration of five or six weeks vinegar treated in this way has a beautifully clear appearance. Albumen can likewise be used to clarify it. The vinegar is boiled with the albumen until the latter is completely coagulated, and then the vinegar is filtered. And finally milk may be employed. For this purpose the milk is skimmed, and 1 quart of milk added for every 68 quarts of vinegar, the mixture well stirred and shaken. After the caseous portion has coagulated (curdled) it is filtered as before, and in this case, too, the product is a fine, clear vinegar. We believe that these few experiments, so easily performed, and at so small an expense, will prove useful to our readers in enabling them to put their product in the market in an excellent condition and nicely clarified. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2005). Scientific American Supplement, No. 392, July 7, 1883. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/8742/pg8742-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

The following practical information on the clarification and purification of vinegar

Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889, by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ON ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF SILVER. here ON ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF SILVER. By M. Carey Lea. In the first part of this paper were described certain forms of silver; among them a lilac blue substance, very soluble in water, with a deep red color. After undergoing purification, it was shown to be nearly pure silver. During the purification by washing it seemed to change somewhat, and, consequently, some uncertainty existed as to whether or not the purified substance was essentially the same as the first product; it seemed possible that the extreme solubility of the product in its first condition might be due to a combination in some way with citric acid, the acid separating during the washing. Many attempts were made to get a decisive indication, and two series of analyses, one a long one, to determine the ratio between the silver and the citric acid present, without obtaining a wholly satisfactory result, inasmuch as even these determinations of mere ratio involved a certain degree of previous purification which might have caused a separation. This question has since been settled in an extremely simple way, and the fact established that the soluble blue substance contains not a trace of combined citric acid. The precipitated lilac blue substance (obtained by reducing silver citrate by ferrous citrate) was thrown on a filter and cleared of mother water as far as possible with a filter pump. Pure water was then poured on in successive portions until more than half the substance was dissolved. The residue, evidently quite unchanged, was, of course, tolerably free from mother water. It was found that by evaporating it to dryness over a water bath, most of the silver separated out as bright white normal silver; by adding water and evaporating a second time, the separation was complete, and water added dissolved no silver. It must have been acid had any citric acid been combined originally with the silver. This experiment, repeated with every precaution, seems conclusive. The ferrous solution, used for reducing the silver citrate, had been brought to exact neutrality with sodium hydroxide. After the reduction had been effected, the mother water over the lilac blue precipitate was neutral or faintly acid. The solution thus obtained was neutral. A corroborating indication is the following: The portions of the lilac blue substance which were dissolved on the filter (see above) were received into a dilute solution of magnesium sulphate, which throws down insoluble allotropic silver of the form I have called B (see previous paper). This form has already been shown to be nearly pure silver. The magnesia solution, neutral before use, was also neutral after it had effected the precipitation, indicating that no citric acid had been set free in the precipitation of the silver. It seems, therefore, clear that the lilac blue substance contains no combined citric acid. Had the solubility of the silver been due to combination with either acid or alkali, the liquid from which it was separated by digestion at or below 100° C. must have been acid or alkaline; it could not have been neutral. We have, therefore, this alternative: In the lilac blue substance we have either pure silver in a soluble form or else a compound of silver, with a perfectly neutral substance generated from citric acid in the reaction which leads to the formation of the lilac blue substance. If this last should prove the true explanation, then we have to do with a combination of silver of a quite different nature from any silver compounds hitherto known. A neutral substance generated from citric acid must have one or more atoms of hydrogen replaced by silver. This possibility recalls the recent observations of Ballo, who, by acting with a ferrous salt on tartaric acid, obtained a neutral colloid substance having the constitution of arabin, C6H10O6. To appreciate the difficulty of arriving at a correct conclusion, it must be remembered that the silver precipitate is obtained saturated with strong solutions of ferric and ferrous citrate, sodium citrate, sulphate, etc. These cannot be removed by washing with pure water, in which the substance itself is very soluble, but must be got rid of by washing with saline solutions, under the influence of which the substance itself slowly but continually changes. Next, the saline solution used for washing must be removed by alcohol. During this treatment, the substance, at first very soluble, gradually loses its solubility, and, when ready for analysis, has become wholly insoluble. It is impossible at present to say whether it may not have undergone other change; this is a matter as to which I hope to speak more positively later. It is to be remarked, however, that these allotropic forms of silver acquire and lose solubility from very slight causes, as an instance of which may be mentioned the ease with which the insoluble form B recovers its solubility under the influence of sodium sulphate and borate, and other salts, as described in the previous part of this paper. The two insoluble forms of allotropic silver which I have described as B and C—B, bluish green; C, rich golden color—show the following curious reaction. A film of B, spread on glass and heated in a water stove to 100° C. for a few minutes becomes superficially bright yellow. A similar film of the gold colored substance, C, treated in the same way, acquires a blue bloom. In both cases it is the surface only that changes. —All these forms of silver are acted upon by light. A and B acquire a brownish tinge by some hours' exposure to sunlight. With C the case is quite different, the color changes from that of red gold to that of pure yellow gold. The experiment is an interesting one. The exposed portion retains its full metallic brilliancy, giving an additional proof that the color depends upon molecular arrangement, and this with the allotropic forms of silver is subject to change from almost any influence. Sensitiveness to Light. —These substances vary greatly in stability under influences difficult to appreciate. I have two specimens of the gold yellow substance, C, both made in December, 1886, with the same proportions, under the same conditions. One has passed to dazzling white, normal silver, without falling to powder, or undergoing disaggregation of any sort; the fragments have retained their shape, simply changing to a pure frosted white, remaining apparently as solid as before; the other is unchanged, and still shows its deep yellow color and golden luster. Another specimen made within a few months and supposed to be permanent has changed to brown. Complete exclusion of air and light is certainly favorable to permanence. Stability. —The brittleness of the substances B and C, the facility with which they can be reduced to the finest powder, makes a striking point of difference between allotropic and normal silver. It is probable that normal silver, precipitated in fine powder and set aside moist to dry gradually, may cohere into brittle lumps, but these would be mere aggregations of discontinuous material. With allotropic silver the case is very different, the particles dry in optical contact with each other, the surfaces are brilliant, and the material evidently continuous. That this should be brittle indicates a totally different state of molecular constitution from that of normal silver. Physical Condition. —The allotropic forms of silver show a lower specific gravity than that of normal silver. Specific Gravities. In determining the specific gravities it was found essential to keep the sp. gr. bottle after placing the material in it for some hours under the bell of an air pump. Films of air attach themselves obstinately to the surfaces, and escape but slowly even in vacuo. Taken with this precaution, the blue substance, B, gave specific gravity 9.58, and the yellow substance, C, specific gravity 8.51. The specific gravity of normal silver, after melting, was found by G. Rose to be 10.5. That of finely divided silver obtained by precipitation is stated to be 10.62. 1 I believe these determinations to be exact for the specimens employed. But the condition of aggregation may not improbably vary somewhat in different specimens. It seems, however, clear that these forms of silver have a lower specific gravity than the normal, and this is what would be expected. Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, May, 1889.— Amer. Jour. of Science. Watts' Dict., orig. ed., v. 277. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2004). Scientific American Supplement, No. 711, August 17, 1889. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/16972/pg16972-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

ON ALLOTROPIC FORMS OF SILVER

WATER SUPPLY OF SMALL TOWNS

A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School by Catharine Esther Beecher, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ON WHITENING, CLEANSING, AND DYEING. here CHAPTER XXVIII. ON WHITENING, CLEANSING, AND DYEING To Whiten Articles, and Remove Stains from them. Wet white clothes in suds, and lay them on the grass, in the sun. Lay muslins in suds made with white soap, in a flat dish; set this in the sun, changing the suds, every day. Whiten tow-cloth, or brown linen, by keeping it in ley, through the night, laying it out in the sun, and wetting it with fair water, as fast as it dries. Scorched articles can often be whitened again, by laying them in the sun, wet with suds. Where this does not answer, put a pound of white soap in a gallon of milk, and boil the article in it. Another method, is, to chop and extract the juice from two onions, and boil this with half a pint of vinegar, an ounce of white soap, and two ounces of fuller's earth. Spread this, when cool, on the scorched part, and, when dry, wash it off, in fair water. may be removed, by dipping the article in sour buttermilk, laying it in the sun, and, after it is white, rinsing it in fair water. Soap and chalk are also good; also, soap and starch, adding half as much salt as there is starch, together with the juice of a lemon. Stains in linen can often be removed, by rubbing on soft soap, then putting on a starch paste, and drying in the sun, renewing it several times. Wash off all the soap and starch, in cold, fair water. Mildew Mixtures for Removing Stains and Grease. Half an ounce of oxalic acid, in a pint of soft water. This can be kept in a corked bottle, and is infallible in removing iron-rust, and ink-stains. It is very poisonous. The article must be spread with this mixture over the steam of hot water, and wet several times. This will also remove indelible ink. The article must be washed, or the mixture will injure it. Stain-Mixture. is made, by mixing one ounce of sal ammoniac, one ounce of salt of tartar, and one pint of soft water. Another Stain-Mixture Mix four ounces of fuller's earth, half an ounce of pearlash, and lemon-juice enough to make a stiff paste, which can be dried in balls, and kept for use. Wet the greased spot with cold water, rub it with the ball, dry it, and then rinse it with fair cold water. This is for articles. For silks, and worsteds, use French chalk, which can be procured of the apothecaries. That which is soft and white, is best. Scrape it on the greased spot, and let it lie for a day and night. Then renew it, till the spot disappears. Wilmington clay-balls, are equally good. Ink-spots can often be removed from white clothes, by rubbing on common tallow, leaving it for a day or two, and then washing, as usual. Grease can be taken out of wall-paper, by making a paste of potter's clay, water and ox-gall, and spreading it on the paper. When dry, renew it, till the spot disappears. To remove Grease. white Stains on floors, from , or , can be removed, by washing the spot in sulphuric acid and water. Stains, in colored silk dresses, can often be removed, by pure water. Those made by acids, tea, wine, and fruits, can often be removed, by spirits of hartshorn, diluted with an equal quantity of water. Sometimes, it must be repeated, several times. soot stove-pipes , , and , can be removed, by putting the spot in sweet-oil, or by spreading tallow on it, and letting it remain for twenty-four hours. Then, if the article be linen or cotton, wash it, as usual; if it be silk or worsted, rub it with ether, or spirits of wine. Tar Pitch Turpentine can be removed, from floors, carpets, and other articles, by spreading upon the stain a paste, made of fuller's earth or potter's clay, and renewing it, when dry, till the stain is removed. If gall be put into the paste, it will preserve the colors from injury. When the stain has been removed, carefully brush off the paste, with a soft brush. Lamp-Oil can be removed, by rubbing it with spirits of turpentine. The impure spirit leaves a grease-spot. can be removed, by scraping it off, and then holding a red-hot poker near the spot. may be removed by scraping it off, then putting a paper over the spot, and applying a warm iron. If this does not answer, rub on spirits of wine. Oil-Paint very pure Wax Spermaceti , in carpets and woollen table-covers, can be removed, by washing the spot in a liquid, composed of one teaspoonful of oxalic acid dissolved in a teacupful of warm (not hot) water, and then rinsing in cold water. Ink-Stains , which are caused by cups of hot water, can be removed, by rubbing them with lamp-oil, and then with alcohol. Ink-stains can be taken out of mahogany, by one teaspoonful of oil of vitriol mixed with one tablespoonful of water, or by oxalic acid and water. These must be brushed over quickly, and then washed off with milk. Stains on Varnished Articles Modes of Cleansing Various Articles. and can be cleansed, by using French chalk to take out the grease, and then sponging them, on both sides, with lukewarm fair water. Stiffen them with gum Arabic, and press them between white paper, with an iron not very hot. A tablespoonful of spirits of wine to three quarts of water, improves it. Silk Handkerchiefs Ribands , or , should be washed in warm suds made with white soap, and rinsed in cold water; they should then be stretched and rubbed, with a hard-rolled flannel, till they are quite dry. Ironing them, very much injures their looks. articles should have the grease removed from them, by French chalk, or magnesia; they should then be washed in warm suds, and rinsed in cold water. should have the grease removed from them, as above directed. They should then be brushed, with a soft brush, and a mixture of fuller's earth and magnesia. In an hour after, rub them with flannel, dipped in bran and powdered whiting. can be cleansed, very nicely, by spirits of turpentine, put on with a woollen cloth, and rubbed from wrist to fingers. Hang them for several days in the air, and all the unpleasant smell will be removed. should be washed with a sponge, in white-soapsuds; then wiped, and dried on the hands. , should be washed in white-soapsuds, squeezing, and not rubbing them; then rinse them in two waters, and shake and stretch them while drying. can also be thus washed. Stiffen them, with starch, wet in cold water and not boiled. Shake them in the air, till nearly dry, then hold them before the fire, and curl them with dull scissors, giving each fibre a twitch, turning it inward, and holding it so for a moment. Silk Hose Silk Gloves Washleather White Kid Gloves Colored or Hoskin's gloves pure Gentlemen's white gloves Swan's-down tippets, and capes Ostrich feathers , can be cleansed, by simply washing them in white-soapsuds. Remove grease, by French chalk, and stains, by diluted oxalic acid, or cream of tartar. The oxalic acid is best, but must be instantly washed off. , drive nails in a barrel, near its bottom, so that cords can be stretched across. On these cords, tie the bonnet, wet with suds, (having first removed the grease, stains, and dirt.) Then invert the barrel, over a dish of coals, on which roll brimstone is slowly burning. Put a chip under one side of the barrel, to admit the air. Continue this, till the bonnet is white; then hang it in the air, (when the weather is not damp,) till the smell is removed. Then stiffen it with a solution of isinglass or gum Arabic, put on the inside, with a sponge. Press the crown, on a block, and the rest on a board, on the right side, putting muslin between the iron and straw, and pressing hard. Be careful not to make it too stiff. First, stiffen a small piece, for trial. Straw and Leghorn Hats To whiten them ON COLORING. Precautions and Preparations. All the articles must be entirely free from grease or oil, and also, in most cases, from soapsuds. Make light dyes in brass, and dark ones in iron, vessels. Always wet the articles, in fair water, before dyeing. Always carefully strain the dye. If the color be too light, dry and then dip the article again. Stir the article well in the dye, lifting it up often. Remove any previous color, by boiling in suds, or, what is better, in the soda mixture used for washing. Buy a saucer of carmine, at an apothecary's. With it, you will find directions for its use. This is cheap, easy to use, and beautiful. and , with a little cream of tartar in the water, make a pretty pink. Pink Dye. Balm blossoms Bergamot blossoms Take half a pound of wheat bran, three ounces of powdered alum, and two gallons of soft water. Boil these in a brass vessel, and add an ounce of cream of tartar, and an ounce of cochineal, tied up together in a bag. Boil the mixture for fifteen minutes, then strain it, and dip the articles. Brazil wood, set with alum, makes another red dye. Red Dye. Fustic, turmeric powder, saffron, barberry-bush, peach-leaves, or marigold flowers, make a yellow dye. Set the dye with alum, putting a piece the size of a large hazelnut to each quart of water. Yellow Dye. , for silks and woollens, is made with the 'blue composition,' to be procured of the hat-makers; fifteen drops to a quart of water. Articles dipped in this, must be thoroughly rinsed. For a , boil four ounces of copperas in two gallons of water. Dip the articles in this, and then in a strong decoction of logwood, boiled and strained. Then wash them thoroughly in soapsuds. Light Blue Dye dark blue First color the article yellow; and then, if it be silk or woollen, dip it in 'blue composition.' Instead of ironing, rub it with flannel, while drying. Green Dye. is made by boiling arnotto or anotta in soapsuds. Salmon Color is made by putting one teacupful of potash, tied in a bag, in two gallons of hot (not boiling) water, and adding an ounce of arnotto, also in a bag, keeping it in for half an hour. First, wet the article in strong potash-water. Dry and then rinse in soapsuds. Birch bark and alum also make a buff. Black alder, set with ley, makes an orange color. Buff Color , of all shades, are made by boiling, in an iron vessel, a teacupful of black tea, with a teaspoonful of copperas. Dilute this, till you get the shade wanted. Purple sugar-paper, boiled, and set with alum, makes a similar color. Dove and Slate Colors Boil half a pound of camwood (in a bag) in two gallons of water, for fifteen minutes. Wet the articles, and boil them for a few minutes in the dye. White-walnut bark, the bark of sour sumach, or of white maple, set with alum, make a brown color. Brown Dye. Let one pound of chopped logwood remain all night in one gallon of vinegar. Then boil them, and put in a piece of copperas, as large as a hen's egg. Wet the articles in warm water, and put them in the dye, boiling and stirring them for fifteen minutes. Dry them, then wet them in warm water, and dip them again. Repeat the process, till the articles are black enough. Wash them in suds, and rinse them till the water comes off clear. Iron nails, boiled in vinegar, make a black dye, which is good for restoring rusty black silks. Black Dye. Boil fustic and yellow-oak bark together. The more fustic, the brighter the olive; the more oak bark, the darker the shade. Set the light shade with a few drops of oil of vitriol, and the dark shade with copperas. Olive Color. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Catharine Esther Beecher (2007). A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/21829/pg21829-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

ON WHITENING, CLEANSING, AND DYEING.

A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School by Catharine Esther Beecher, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ON WASHING. here CHAPTER XXVI. ON WASHING. There is nothing, which tends more effectually to secure good washing, than a full supply of all conveniences; and among these, none is more important, than an abundance of warm and cold water: but, if this be obtained, and heated, at a great expense of time and labor, it will be used in stinted measure. The accommodations described on page , (Fig. ,) are very convenient in this respect. 275 34 Articles to be provided for Washing. A plenty of soft water is a very important item. When this cannot be had, ley or soda can be put in hard water, to soften it; care being used not to put in so much, as to injure the hands and clothes. Two wash-forms are needed; one for the two tubs in which to put the suds, and the other for blueing and starching-tubs. Four tubs, of different sizes, are necessary; also, a large dipper, (as metal is apt to rust;) two or three pails; a grooved wash-board; a clothes-line, (sea-grass, or horse-hair is best;) a wash-stick to move clothes, when boiling, and a wooden fork to take them out. Soap-dishes, made to hook on the tubs, save soap and time. Provide, also, a clothes-bag, in which to boil clothes; an indigo-bag, of double flannel; a starch-strainer, of coarse linen; a bottle of ox-gall for calicoes; a supply of starch, neither sour nor musty; several dozens of clothes-pins, which are cleft sticks, used to fasten clothes on the line; a bottle of dissolved gum Arabic; two clothes-baskets; and a brass or copper kettle, for boiling clothes, as iron is apt to rust. A closet, for keeping all these things, is a great convenience. It may be made six feet high, three feet deep, and four feet wide. The tubs and pails can be set on the bottom of this, on their sides, one within another. Four feet from the bottom, have a shelf placed, on which to put the basket of clothes-pins, the line, soap-dishes, dipper, and clothes-fork. Above this, have another shelf, for the bottles, boxes, &c. The shelves should reach out only half way from the back, and nails should be put at the sides, for hanging the wash-stick, clothes-bag, starch-bag, and indigo-bag. The ironing-conveniences might be kept in the same closet, by having the lower shelf raised a little, and putting a deep drawer under it, to hold the ironing-sheets, holders, &c. A lock and key should be put on the closet. If the mistress of the family requests the washerwoman to notify her, when she is through, and then ascertains if all these articles are put in their places, it will prove useful. Tubs, pails, and all hooped wooden ware, should be kept out of the sun, and in a cool place, or they will fall to pieces. wooden Common Mode of Washing. Assort the clothes, and put them in soak, the night before. Never pour hot water on them, as it sets the dirt. In assorting clothes, put the flannels in one lot, the colored clothes in another, the coarse white ones in a third, and the fine clothes in a fourth lot. Wash the fine clothes in one tub of suds; and throw them, when wrung, into another. Then wash them, in the second suds, turning them wrong side out. Put them in the boiling-bag, and boil them in strong suds, for half an hour, and not much more. Move them, while boiling, with the clothes-stick. Take them out of the boiling-bag, and put them into a tub of water, and rub the dirtiest places, again, if need be. Throw them into the rinsing-water, and then wring them out, and put them into the blueing-water. Put the articles to be stiffened, into a clothes-basket, by themselves, and, just before hanging out, dip them in starch, clapping it in, so as to have them equally stiff, in all parts. Hang white clothes in the sun, and colored ones, (wrong side out,) in the shade. Fasten them with clothes-pins. Then wash the coarser white articles, in the same manner. Then wash the colored clothes. These must not be soaked, nor have ley or soda put in the water, and they ought not to lie wet long before hanging out, as it injures their colors. Beef's-gall, one spoonful to two pailfuls of suds, improves calicoes. Lastly, wash the flannels, in suds as hot as the hand can bear. Never rub on soap, as this shrinks them in spots. Wring them out of the first suds, and throw them into another tub of hot suds, turning them wrong side out. Then throw them into hot blueing-water. Do not put blueing into suds, as it makes specks in the flannel. Never leave flannels long in water, nor put them in cold or lukewarm water. Before hanging them out, shake and stretch them. Some housekeepers have a close closet, made with slats across the top. On these slats, they put their flannels, when ready to hang out, and then burn brimstone under them, for ten minutes. It is but little trouble, and keeps the flannels as white as new. Wash the colored flannels, and hose, after the white, adding more hot water. Some persons dry woollen hose on stocking-boards, shaped like a foot and leg,[Pg 287] with strings to tie them on the line. This keeps them from shrinking, and makes them look better than if ironed. It is also less work, than to iron them properly. Bedding should be washed in long days, and in hot weather. Pound blankets in two different tubs or barrels of hot suds, first well mixing the soap and water. Rinse in hot suds; and, after wringing, let two persons shake them thoroughly, and then hang them out. If not dry, at night, fold them, and hang them out the next morning. Bedquilts should be pounded in warm suds; and, after rinsing, be wrung as dry as possible. Bolsters and pillows can be pounded in hot suds, without taking out the feathers, rinsing them in fair water. It is usually best, however, for nice feathers, to take them out, wash them, and dry them on a garret floor. Cotton comforters should have the cases taken off and washed. Wash bedticks, after the feathers are removed, like other things. Empty straw beds once a year. The following cautions, in regard to calicoes, are useful. Never wash them in very warm water; and change the water, when it appears dingy, or the light parts will look dirty. Never rub on soap; but remove grease with French chalk, starch, magnesia, or Wilmington clay. Make starch for them, with coffee-water, to prevent any whitish appearance. Glue is good for stiffening calicoes. When laid aside, not to be used, all stiffening should be washed out, or they will often be injured. Never let calicoes freeze, in drying. Some persons use bran-water, (four quarts of wheat-bran to two pails of water,) and no soap, for calicoes; washing and rinsing in the bran-water. Potato-water is equally good. Take eight peeled and grated potatoes to one gallon of water. Soda-Washing. A very great saving in labor is secured, by . There have been mistakes made in receipts, and in modes of doing it, which have caused a prejudice against it; but if the soap be rightly made, and rightly used, . soda-washing it certainly saves one half the labor and time of ordinary washing Receipt for Soda-Soap. Take eight pounds of bar-soap, eight pounds of coarse soda, (the sub-carbonate,) ten gallons of soft water, boiled two hours, stirring it often. This is to be cooled, and set away for use. In washing, take a pound of this soap, to the largest pail of water, and heat till it boils. Having previously soaked the white clothes, in , not , water, put them in this boiling mixture, and let them boil . Take them out, draining them well, and put them in a tub, half full of soft water. Turn them wrong side out; rub the soiled places, till they look clean; then put them into blue rinsing-water, and wring them out. They are then ready to hang out. Some persons use another rinsing-water. The colored clothes and flannels must not be washed in this way. The fine clothes may be first boiled in this water; it may then be used for coarser clothes; and afterward, the brown towels, and other articles of that nature, may be boiled in the same water. After this, the water which remains, is still useful, for washing floors; and then, the suds is a good manure to put around plants. warm hot one hour and no more It is best to prepare, at once, the whole quantity of water to be used. Take out about one third, and set it by; and every time a fresh supply of clothes is put in, use a portion of this, to supply the waste of a former boiling. Modes of Washing Various Articles. , or , of tea, drab, or olive, colors, look best, washed in hay-water. Put in hay enough, to color the water like new brown linen. Wash them first in lukewarm, fair water, without soap, (removing grease with French chalk,) then wash and rinse them in the hay-water. Brown Linens Muslins look best, washed in suds, with a teacup of ley added for each pailful. Iron on the wrong side. Soak new nankeens in ley, for one night, and it sets the color perfectly. Nankeens and , may be washed thus: Remove grease as before directed. If there be stains in the articles, take them out with spirits of hartshorn. Wash the things in two portions of hot suds, made of white soap. Do not wring them, but fold them and press the water out, catching it in a tub, under a table. Shake, stretch, and dry, neither by the sun nor a fire, and do not let them freeze, in drying. Sprinkle them three hours before ironing, and fold and roll them tight. Iron them heavily on the wrong side. , should be washed in very hot water, putting in a teacupful of ley, and no soap, to half a pailful of water. Rinse till the water comes off clear. Woollen Table-Covers Woollen Shawls Woollen yarn , should be soaked all night, and washed in hot suds, with beef's-gall, a tablespoonful to half a pail of water. Rinse till no color comes out. Iron on the wrong side. New Black Worsted and Woollen Hose The common mode, is, to shake, and brush the articles, and rip out linings and pockets; then to wash them in strong suds, adding a teacupful of ley, using white soap for light cloth; rolling and then pressing, instead of wringing, them; when dry, sprinkling them, and letting them lie all night; and ironing on the wrong side, or with a thin dark cloth over the article, until dry. But a far better way, which the writer has repeatedly tried, with unfailing success, is the following: Take one beef's-gall, half a pound of salæratus, and four gallons of warm water. Lay the article on a table, and scour it thoroughly, in every part, with a clothes-brush, dipped in this mixture. The collar of a coat, and the grease-spots, (previously marked by stitches of white thread,) must be repeatedly brushed. Then, take the article, and rinse it up and down in the mixture. Then, rinse it up and down in a tub of soft cold water. Then, without wringing or pressing, hang it to drain and dry. Fasten a coat up by the collar. When perfectly dry, it is sometimes the case, with coats, that nothing more is needed. In other cases, it is necessary to dampen the parts, which look wrinkled, with a sponge, and either pull them smooth, with the fingers, or press them with an iron, having a piece of bombazine, or thin woollen cloth, between the iron and the article. To Cleanse Gentlemen's Broadcloths. perfectly To manufacture Ley, Soap, Starch, and other Articles used in Washing. Provide a large tub, made of pine or ash, and set it on a form, so high, that a tub can stand under it. Make a hole, an inch in diameter, near the bottom, on one side. Lay bricks, inside, about this hole, and straw over them. To every seven bushels of ashes, add two gallons of unslacked lime, and throw in the ashes and lime in alternate layers. While putting in the ashes and lime, pour on boiling water, using three or four pailfuls. After this, add a pailful of cold soft water, once an hour, till all the ashes appear to be well soaked. Catch the drippings, in a tub, and try its strength with an egg. If the egg rise so as to show a circle as large as a ten cent piece, the strength is right; if it rise higher, the ley must be weakened by water; if not so high, the ashes are not good, and the whole process must be repeated, putting in fresh ashes, and running the weak ley through the new ashes, with some additional water. is made by pouring one gallon of boiling soft water on three quarts of ashes, and straining it. Oak ashes are best. To make Ley. Quick-ley Save all drippings and fat, melt them, and set them away, in cakes. Some persons keep, for soap-grease, a half barrel, with weak ley in it, and a cover over it. To make soft-soap, take the proportion of one pailful of ley to three pounds of fat. Melt the fat, and pour in the ley, by degrees. Boil it steadily, through the day, till it is ropy. If not boiled enough, on cooling, it will turn to ley and sediment. While boiling, there should always be a little oil on the surface. If this does not appear, add more grease. If there is too much grease, on cooling, it will rise, and can be skimmed off. Try it, by cooling a small quantity. When it appears like gelly, on becoming cold, it is done. It must then be put in a cool place and often stirred. To make Soft-Soap. , melt thirty pounds of grease, put it in a barrel, add four pailfuls of strong ley, and stir it up thoroughly. Then gradually add more ley, till the barrel is nearly full, and the soap looks . To make cold Soft-Soap about right , melt thirty-nine pounds of grease, and put it in a barrel. Take twenty-nine pounds of light ash-colored potash, (the -colored will spoil the soap,) and pour hot water on it; then pour it off into the grease, stirring it well. Continue thus, till all the potash is melted. Add one pailful of cold water, stirring it a great deal, every day, till the barrel be full, and then it is done. This is the cheapest and best kind of soap. It is best to sell ashes and buy potash. The soap is better, if it stand a year before it is used; therefore make two barrels at once. To make Potash-Soap reddish , take fifteen pounds of lard, or suet; and, when boiling, add, slowly, five gallons of ley, mixed with one gallon of water. Cool a small portion; and, if no grease rise, it is done: if grease do rise, add ley, and boil till no grease rises. Then add three quarts of fine salt, and boil it; if this do not harden well, on cooling, add more salt. Cool it, and if it is to be perfumed, melt it next day, put in the perfume, and then run it in moulds, or cut it in cakes. , is made in the same way, by using common fat. To make Hard White Soap Common Hard Soap , cleanse a peck of unground wheat, and soak it, for several days, in soft water. When quite soft, remove the husks, with the hand, and the soft parts will settle. Pour off the water, and replace it, every day, with that which is fresh, stirring it well. When, after stirring and settling, the water is clear, it is done. Then strain off the water, and dry the starch, for several days, in the sun. If the water be permitted to remain too long, it sours, and the starch is poor. If the starch be not well dried, it grows musty. To manufacture Starch About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Catharine Esther Beecher (2007). A Treatise on Domestic Economy; For the Use of Young Ladies at Home and at School. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/21829/pg21829-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

Stories, News & Mentions about MAGNESTAR

Magnestar’s Stories on HackerNoon