Jackett

jackett

Image via highsnobiety.com Designed for functionality Vollebak is at the forefront of luxury techwear this year. Their line of 100-Year Gear has caught the attention of many for their esteemed claims. It’s supposedly able to last over 100 years in even the harshest weather while providing breathability, durability, and practicality. The jacket that does it all has become a staple company for those living a minimalist lifestyle. Minimalists share the same attitude about shopping with Vollebak, investing in quality and useful pieces. Minimalism The minimalist lifestyle has become adopted by many to promote mental well-being. It is believed that in the absence of unnecessary material goods, we are able to focus on the more important things in life such as relationships, careers and hobbies. This lifestyle is defined by as “a tool to eliminate life’s excess, focus on the essentials, and find happiness, fulfillment, and freedom”. Joshua Millburn and Ryan Nicodemus The concept of minimalism is a  westernized version of and beliefs regarding living in moderation. Jainist Buddhist Does minimalism=sustainability? Though they are not interchangeable, many of their philosophies go hand in hand. The main pillars of sustainability include maintaining environmental health, under-consumption, and societal equity with accessibility for all. Minimalism preaches minimizing consumption, which can be extended to the sustainable practice of under-consumption. They differ in that a minimalist lifestyle is focused on the individual rather than the collective, with the primary motivator being financial freedom and mental wellbeing. Sustainability has the primary goal of restoring the earth’s biosphere by moving towards renewable systems. Image via the Guardian Capsule Wardrobes Capsule wardrobes are a collection of your daily essentials. They prioritize functionality and quality over everything, to create a timeless closet. Minimalists build a closet with the intention to always be wearing an outfit they love. On paper the idea of a capsule wardrobe makes sense, you don’t fall victim to impulse buys or short-lived trends. Extracting yourself from the consumer lifestyle entirely can save you lots of time, stress and money. Though for some, a capsule wardrobe can eliminate the creativity we have with our outfits every morning. The commitment of a capsule wardrobe is scary. A beloved closet being replaced with the same 7 black t-shirts and 7 jeans sounds like a nightmare for us fashion lovers. Perhaps there is a sweet spot somewhere between minimalism and hoarding that is a good compromise on all spectrums. Image via milled.com Closet Essentials For many minimalists, techwear companies like Vollebak have become essential. Their mission of having absurdly high quality and innovative garments has sparked interest in many. The 100-Year Jacket is designed to withstand extraordinary tough terrain. It provides water resistance for up to 43,000mm of rain, which is much more than we will see in our lifetimes. Practicality Though this jacket is tough it’s still a practical and breathable option. It has an excessive amount of pockets and durable zippers designed to last many journeys. The fabric itself has a minimum lifespan of 100 years. The c_change® component of the material mimics the structure of flowers to respond to its environment and open/close at any given temperature. The membrane of the material opens up like a vent in the presence of heat allowing sweat and heat to escape the body. In cooler temperatures, those vents contract to provide heat insulation for the body. Vollebak has put lots of experimentation and research into making this jacket a worthwhile investment. Image via piffypuffy.tumblr.com Investing in your Closet This jacket will become an investment that you pass on to future generations as it outlives you. Minimalist or not, we should all be investing in our staple pieces. Trying to look at your “cost per wear” may put it into perspective for you. A high-end blouse that you have worn 200 times over and kept for years could have the same cost per wear as a forgotten t-shirt you picked up off a sale rack. So sometimes the expensive item is a better option. The 100-Year Jacket is $895, which may seem frightening at first. But when considering yourself and possibly your kids will be wearing this jacket for the intended 100 years, it’s actually a sweet deal. And yes, it’s a hefty investment, but at least there is free shipping.

This 100-Year Jacket Can Outlive its Owner

The Genies Tool Kit: Everything You Need to Know

জিনিস টুল কিট: আপনার যা জানা দরকার

Das Genies-Toolkit: Alles, was Sie wissen müssen

El kit de herramientas Genies: todo lo que necesitas saber

La trousse à outils Genies : tout ce que vous devez savoir

जिनी टूल किट: वह सब कुछ जो आपको जानना चाहिए

Genies ツールキット: 知っておくべきことすべて

Genies 도구 키트: 알아야 할 모든 것

O kit de ferramentas Genies: tudo o que você precisa saber

Набор инструментов Genies: все, что вам нужно знать

Genies Araç Seti: Bilmeniz Gereken Her Şey

Bộ công cụ Genies: Mọi thứ bạn cần biết

精灵工具包：你需要知道的一切

Much has been said lately about the wonders of Large Language Models (LLMs). Most of these accolades are deserved. Ask ChatGPT to describe the General Theory of Relativity and you will get a very good (and accurate) answer. However, at the end of the day ChatGPT is still a computer program (as are all other LLMs) that is blindly executing its instruction set. It understands the General Theory of Relativity no better than your favorite pet. Unfortunately, we use “human-like” words to describe the techniques engineers use to create them - for example, “machine learning” and “training.” This is misleading because an LLM does not have a mind like a human. There is a certain irony here - how can a non-thinking chatbot correctly summarize the findings of the smartest man to ever live? To understand this contradictory nature of LLMs, let’s explore them further in terms of Strengths, Weaknesses, and Dangers to see how we can use data, and a storage solution like MinIO, to exploit the first and mitigate the other two. These are techniques that every engineer should have in the back of their minds as they train, test and deploy LLMs for their organization. The Strength The strength of LLMs is that they are trained to understand the probability distribution of words in the training set used to create them. If the training set is sufficiently large (i.e. a corpus of Wikipedia articles or public code on GitHub), then the models will have a vocabulary and a corresponding probability distribution that will make their results appear as if they have a real-world understanding of the text they output. Let’s examine another example in more detail - this time from Philosophy. Ask ChatGPT the question, "What does ‘cogito, ergo sum’ mean and who wrote it?" and you will get something similar to the text below. "Cogito, ergo sum" is a Latin philosophical proposition that translates to "I think, therefore I am" in English. This statement is famously associated with René Descartes, a French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist. Descartes expressed this idea in his work "Discourse on the Method," published in 1637. The phrase reflects Descartes' attempt to establish a foundational truth that cannot be doubted—the certainty of one's own existence as a thinking being. LLMs produce results like this using probability distributions. It works something like this, they start by looking at the text in the question and determine that the word “Cogito” has the highest probability of being the first word of the answer. From there, they look at the question and the first word of the answer to determine the word that has the highest probability of being next. This goes on and on until a special “end of answer” character is determined to be of the highest probability. This ability to generate a natural language response based on billions of probabilities is not something to be feared - rather, it is something that should be exploited for business value. The results get even better when you use modern techniques. For example, using techniques like Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) and Fine-tuning, you can teach an LLM about your specific business. Achieving these human-like results will require data and your infrastructure will need a strong data storage solution. Not only can these next-token prediction capabilities be used to generate great text for your chatbot or marketing copy, but they can also be used to enable automated decision-making within your application. Given cleverly constructed prompts that contain a problem statement and information about APIs (“functions”) that can be called, an LLM’s understanding of language will enable it to generate an answer that explains what “function” should be called. For example, on a conversational weather app, a user could ask, “Do I need a rain jacket if I’m going to Fenway Park tonight?” With some clever prompting, an LLM could extract the location data from the query (Boston, MA) and can determine how a request to the Weather.com Precipitation API could be formulated. For a long time, the hardest part about building software was the interfacing between natural language and syntactic systems such as API calls. Now, ironically, that might be one of the simplest parts. Similar to text generation, the quality and reliability of LLM function-calling behavior can be aided with the use of fine-tuning and reinforcement learning with human feedback (RLHF). Now that we understand what LLMs are good at and why, let’s investigate what LLMs cannot do. The Weakness LLMs cannot think, understand or reason. This is the fundamental limitation of LLMs. Language models lack the ability to reason about a user's question. They are probability machines that produce a really good guess to a user’s question. No matter how good of a guess something is, it is still a guess and whatever creates these guesses will eventually produce something that is not true. In generative AI, this is known as a “Hallucination.” When trained correctly, hallucinations can be kept to a minimum. Fine-tuning and RAG also greatly cut down on hallucinations. The bottom line - to train a model correctly, fine-tune it and give it relevant context (RAG) requires data and the infrastructure to store it at scale and serve it in a performant manner. Let’s look at one more aspect of LLMs, which I’ll classify as a danger because it impacts our ability to test them. The Danger The most popular use of LLMs is Generative AI. Generative AI does not produce a specific answer that can be compared to a known result. This is in contrast to other AI use cases, which make a specific prediction that can be easily tested. It is straightforward to test models for image detection, categorization and regression. But how do you test LLMs used for generative AI in a way that is impartial, fact-faithful and scalable? How can you be sure that the complex answers LLMs generate are correct if you are not an expert yourself? Even if you are an expert, human reviewers can not be a part of the automated testing that occurs in a CI/CD pipeline. There are a few benchmarks in the industry that can help. GLUE (General Language Understanding Evaluation) is used to evaluate and measure the performance of LLMs. It consists of a set of tasks that assess the ability of models to process human language. SuperGLUE is an extension of the GLUE benchmark that introduces more challenging language tasks. These tasks involve coreference resolution, question answering and more complex linguistic phenomena. While the benchmarks above are helpful, a big part of the solution should be your own data collection. Consider logging all questions and answers and creating your own tests based on custom findings. This will also require a data infrastructure built to scale and perform. Conclusion There you have it. The strengths, weaknesses, and dangers of LLMs. If you want to exploit the first and mitigate the other two, then you will need data and a storage solution that can handle lots of it.

Analyzing the Pros, Cons, and Risks of LLMs

এলএলএম-এর সুবিধা, অসুবিধা এবং ঝুঁকি বিশ্লেষণ করা

Analyse der Vor-, Nachteile und Risiken von LLMs

Análisis de los pros, los contras y los riesgos de los LLM

Analyser les avantages, les inconvénients et les risques des LLM

एलएलएम के पेशेवरों, विपक्षों और जोखिमों का विश्लेषण

LLM の長所、短所、リスクの分析

LLM의 장단점 및 위험 분석

Analisando os prós, contras e riscos dos LLMs

Анализ плюсов, минусов и рисков LLM

Yüksek Lisans'ın Artılarını, Eksilerini ve Risklerini Analiz Etmek

Phân tích ưu, nhược điểm và rủi ro của LLM

分析法学硕士的优点、缺点和风险

Following its breakout year in 2023, generative AI (genAI) is finding increasing applications across various industries, including fashion. However, while this is a significant technology, it's only one aspect of the changes happening in the field. Some innovations may not appear on the catwalks or make headlines but could be essential during mountain expeditions or camping trips. I spoke with Vladislav Moroz, the founder of - a brand of equipment and apparel for extreme sports and outdoor activities - who revealed the products and innovations that keep you warm and dry in severe weather. RedFox The Rise of Electronic Jackets RedFox strives to stay ahead of the game by experimenting with new technologies. In 2021, the company initiated a collaboration with . Together, they conceived the idea of electronically heated clothing capable of replacing ten layers of sweaters under a winter coat. ITMO University “Equipped with printed electronics, this clothing can keep the wearer warm even in extremely cold temperatures down to -70°C,” Moroz said. “The first garment prototype is a jacket, with the electronics distributed throughout the item. These electronics can operate for up to six hours without needing to be recharged. To activate them, users simply need to press a button on the surface of the garment.” The Ultimate Shield Picture yourself embarking on a mountain expedition or camping trip, where unpredictable weather can quickly turn an adventure into a test of endurance. In such scenarios, the importance of waterproof clothing cannot be overstated. “Outdoor brands like RedFox are harnessing the power of cutting-edge materials such as to create garments that not only block out moisture but also allow for breathability, ensuring comfort even during unexpected downpours,” Moroz said. “This membrane material was invented in 1969 by Wilbert L. Gore and his son, Robert W. Gore. In 2006, the latter was inducted into the U.S. National Inventors Hall of Fame for their discovery.” Gore-Tex No Seams Allowed But it's not just about keeping dry; staying warm in extreme conditions is equally crucial. Imagine yourself strolling through a snowstorm. Numerous jackets are touted for their ability to withstand extreme cold, but the reality often falls short of the claim. “Many of these jackets feature seams that create minuscule holes in the fabric, allowing chilly air to infiltrate and leaving the wearer vulnerable to the elements,” Moroz said. “Recognizing this flaw, certain outdoor brands are turning to seamless technology. It allows them to craft garments without stitches and superior thermal insulation.” Moroz’s brand also used it to create sleeping bags. They were tested by the International Center for Quality Certification and showed stunning results: according to Moroz, they braved temperatures of up to -91 °C. Goose Down Gets an Upgrade Of course, no winter jacket is complete without the coveted warmth of goose down. It is prized for its excellent heat retention features. While it is a natural material, nobody uses it in its raw state. “Before filling a jacket, down undergoes rigorous testing with water, soap, and high temperatures,” Moroz said. “These steps allow us to get rid of dust and parasites, making the material wearable for everyone, especially for people with allergies. However, during this process, it loses some of its original qualities, such as waterproofing.” To restore it, brands use different methods. One of the most effective is waterproofing. It helps to make the material water-resistant while remaining soft and pleasant to the touch. Nikwax Little Innovation That Makes a Big Difference But it's not just about jackets; even accessories are getting a technological makeover. Let’s say you have to check directions or make the radio call. But it is freezing and potentially dangerous to take your mittens off. “Well, you do not have to if you wear a top mitten with a side zipper,” Moroz said. “It enables people to quickly expose their fingers without having to remove the whole mitten, thus preventing frostbite. Moreover, the zipper can be easily manipulated with one's teeth. Simple yet ingenious, this innovation epitomizes the marriage of fashion and function in extreme weather conditions.” As we look to the future, one thing is certain: the intersection of fashion and technology will continue to inspire creativity and drive progress, ensuring that we're always equipped to face whatever challenges Mother Nature throws our way. So whether you're scaling a mountain or simply navigating the urban jungle, rest assured that the latest innovations in fashion have you covered, both literally and figuratively.

Outdoor Tech That Works: Stay Warm and Dry in the Harshest Conditions

In today's digital age, leveraging AI-powered tools like ChatGPT can be a game-changer for professionals seeking to enhance their productivity and creativity. However, harnessing the full potential of ChatGPT requires more than just typing a query—it's about crafting the perfect prompts that elicit insightful responses. Join me on a journey as we explore the art of prompt engineering and how to get the most out of ChatGPT. I - Step by step crafting process Step 1: Define Your Goal Before diving into the world of ChatGPT, it's crucial to define your objective clearly. Are you looking for writing assistance, brainstorming ideas, or seeking information? Let's say you're tasked with generating innovative marketing strategies for a new product launch. Prompt Example: "I'm seeking creative marketing strategies to promote our upcoming product launch in the tech industry. How can we captivate our target audience and differentiate ourselves from competitors?" Step 2: Be Specific Provide ChatGPT with detailed context and requirements to ensure precise responses tailored to your needs. Specificity is key to unlocking valuable insights. Prompt Example: "Our target audience consists of tech-savvy millennials aged 25-35 who are passionate about sustainability. Can you suggest eco-friendly marketing tactics that resonate with this demographic and highlight our product's unique features?" Step 3: Ask Clear Questions Structure your prompts as clear, focused questions to guide ChatGPT's responses and extract relevant information effectively. Prompt Example: "What are some actionable steps we can take to leverage social media platforms like Instagram and Twitter to increase brand visibility and drive engagement among our target audience?" Step 4: Use Keywords Incorporate relevant keywords related to your topic to provide ChatGPT with context and help it understand your query better. Prompt Example: "Explore strategies for creating viral marketing campaigns that leverage user-generated content and community-driven initiatives to amplify brand awareness and foster brand loyalty." Step 5: Provide Examples Offer specific examples or scenarios related to your query to help ChatGPT understand your requirements and provide tailored responses. Prompt Example: "Inspired by Nike's 'You Can't Stop Us' campaign, how can we craft compelling storytelling narratives that resonate with our audience and evoke emotional connections with our brand?" Step 6: Use Prompts as Guidelines Treat your prompts as guidelines rather than rigid instructions, allowing ChatGPT some flexibility to explore different angles and generate creative responses. Prompt Example: "Can you brainstorm unconventional marketing tactics that disrupt industry norms and leave a lasting impression on our audience, while staying true to our brand values?" Step 7: Iterate and Refine Refine your prompts based on the feedback you receive from ChatGPT to elicit more insightful and relevant responses. Prompt Example: "I appreciate your insights! Let's dive deeper into the impact of influencer partnerships on brand perception and explore innovative approaches to influencer marketing in our industry." Step 8: Experiment With Length Vary the length of your prompts to find the right balance between clarity and specificity, depending on your specific use case. Prompt Example: "Can you provide a detailed analysis of emerging trends in content marketing and suggest actionable strategies for optimizing our content distribution strategy across digital channels?" Step 9: Consider Context Switching Provide a brief context switch statement before transitioning to a new topic to help ChatGPT understand the change in direction and maintain coherence in its responses. Prompt Example: "Shifting gears, let's explore opportunities for leveraging emerging technologies such as augmented reality to enhance our customer experience and drive sales conversion rates." Step 10: Review and Adjust Review ChatGPT's responses carefully and adjust your prompts as needed to optimize your interactions and achieve your desired outcomes. Prompt Example: "Thank you for your insights! Can you provide case studies or real-world examples of companies that have successfully implemented AI-powered chatbots to improve customer service efficiency?" II - Structures and templates Problem-Solution: : Describe the issue or challenge. Problem : Propose a solution or multiple solutions. Solution : Explain the benefits of implementing the solution(s). Benefits : This template outlines a problem or challenge and then proposes one or more solutions to address it. Explanation Example Prompt: "Identify a pressing environmental issue in your community and propose a comprehensive solution to mitigate its impact." SWOT Analysis: : List internal factors that contribute positively. Strengths : Identify internal factors that are detrimental. Weaknesses : Explore external factors that could be advantageous. Opportunities : Consider external factors that pose risks. Threats : SWOT stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. This template helps analyze internal and external factors affecting a situation. Explanation Example Prompt: "Conduct a SWOT analysis of a local small business, considering its internal strengths and weaknesses, as well as external opportunities and threats in the market." Cause and Effect: : Identify the root cause of an issue or event. Cause : Describe the consequences or outcomes. Effect : Discuss the broader implications or significance. Implications : This template explores the relationship between a cause and its effects, helping to understand the underlying mechanisms of a phenomenon. Explanation Example Prompt: "Examine the causes and effects of deforestation in a specific region, considering environmental, economic, and social impacts." : Comparison : Describe the first subject for comparison. Subject A : Describe the second subject for comparison. Subject B : Highlight similarities between the two subjects. Key Similarities : Point out the differences between them. Key Differences : This template highlights similarities and differences between two or more subjects, providing a structured way to evaluate and contrast them. Explanation Example Prompt: "Compare and contrast the educational systems of two different countries, focusing on curriculum structure, teaching methods, and student outcomes." : Chronology : Outline events in chronological order. Past Events : Describe the current state of affairs. Present Situation : Discuss potential future developments. Future Projections : This template arranges events or processes in chronological order, helping to understand their progression over time. Explanation Example Prompt: "Trace the historical development of communication technology from the invention of the printing press to the modern era of social media platforms." : Pro-Con : List the advantages or positive aspects. Pros : Identify the disadvantages or negative aspects. Cons : Offer considerations or mitigations for the cons. Considerations : This template lists the advantages (pros) and disadvantages (cons) of a particular topic or decision, facilitating a balanced analysis. Explanation Example Prompt: "Evaluate the pros and cons of implementing renewable energy initiatives in a city, considering factors such as cost-effectiveness, environmental impact, and community engagement." : Decision-Making : Present the available choices or options. Options : Establish criteria for evaluating the options. Criteria : Assess each option against the criteria. Evaluation : Make a recommendation or decision based on the evaluation. Decision : This template guides the decision-making process by presenting options, establishing criteria for evaluation, and making a recommendation based on the analysis. Explanation Example Prompt: "You are a project manager tasked with selecting a software development methodology for an upcoming project. Compare agile and waterfall methodologies, evaluate their suitability for the project requirements, and recommend the most appropriate approach." Five W's and One H: : Identify the relevant individuals or groups involved. Who : Define the subject or topic. What : Specify the timing or timeframe. When : Determine the location or context. Where : Explore the reasons or motivations. Why : Describe the methods or processes involved. How : This template prompts exploration by addressing the basic questions of who, what, when, where, why, and how, providing a comprehensive understanding of a topic. Explanation Example Prompt: "Investigate the impact of a natural disaster (such as a hurricane, earthquake, or wildfire) on a local community, addressing who was affected, what damages occurred, when it happened, where it occurred, why it happened, and how the community responded." III - Role Based Prompts Frameworks Let’s dive into examples of role based prompts using Roles, Tasks, Missions, Formats, Contexts and other structure to tweak and enhance prompts in order to get the most out of ChatGPT. Persona - Role - Context - Mission You are [PERSONA], your role is [ROLE], Here’s the context [CONTEXT], This is your mission [MISSION] [Persona] You are now CoachGPT, a seasoned world-class business coach with over 20+ years of experience coaching CEOs and entrepreneurs with an average net worth of $200M. For reference, your work is considered so good, your results so astounding, that you charge 10000€ an hour for a consultation. [Role] As CoachGPT, your roles are: → To ask me the right questions → To confront me with my inconsistencies → To guide me towards the best decisions → To understand my challenges, even the most complex. -> to give me exact answers and process to follow. -> guide me step by step on how to achieve my goals -> tailor your answers for my needs -> give me practical and actionable ideas on how to achieve my goals [Context] I am a solo entrepreneur with a background in software engineering, I'm launching my B2B software as a service startup that specializes in artificial intelligence and builds business focused AI agents and AI assistants for clients (startups, small businesses, Fortune 500 etc.). my goals are: -> to get my first paying clients as fast as possible -> define a good pricing model (subscription based model and or one time payment) -> reach one million euros in revenue the first year -> find out how to make my business recurrent and have a recurring revenues with the same clients. [Mission] Your mission is to assist me in identifying : -> ways to find clients -> growth opportunities for our company -> ways to make the business more efficient -> ways to make the business recurrent which may include but are not limited to: - Management - Marketing - Problem solving - Hiring - Productivity strategies - Hard skills development - Soft skills development - Financial leverages Role - Task - Format Act as a [ROLE], Create a [TASK], Show as [FORMAT] [Role] You are a social media ad marketer, [Task] Design a compelling Facebook ad campaign to promote a new line of fitness apparel for a sports brand; [Format] Create a storyboard outlining the sequence of ad creatives, including ad copy, visuals, and targeting strategy. Task - Action - Goal Define [TASK], State the [ACTION], Clarify the [GOAL] [task] Your task is to evaluate the performance of team members, [Action] you should act as a Direct manager and assess the strengths and weaknesses of team members. [Goal] your Goal is to improve team performance so that the average user satisfaction score moves from 6 to 8 in the next quarter. Past - Future - Bridge Explain Problem [PAST], State the outcome [FUTURE], Ask for the [BRIDGE] [Past] We're nowhere to be seen on SEO rankings; [Future] We want to be in top 10 SEO ranking in our niche in 90 days. [Bridge] Develop a detailed plan for mentioning all the measures we should take also include list of top 20 keywords. Context - Action - Result - Example Give the [context], Describe the [Action], clarify the [Result], Give an [Example] [Context] We are launching a new line of sustainable clothing [Action] Can you assist us in creating a targeted advertising campaign that emphasizes our en- vironmental commitment?. [result] Our desired outcome is to drive product awareness and sales [Example] A good example of a similar successful initiative is Patagonia's "Don't Buy This Jacket" campaign, which highlighted their commitment to sustainability while enhancing their brand image. Role - Input - Steps - Expectations Specify the [Role], Describe [Input], Ask for [Steps], Describe the [Expectation] [Role] Imagine you are a content strategist. [Input] I've gathered detailed information about our target audience, including their interests & common questions related to our industry. [Steps] Provide a Step by Step content strategy plan identifying key topics based on our audience insights, creating an editorial calendar, and drafting engaging content that aligns with our brand message. [Explanation]Aim is to increase our blog's monthly visitors by 40% and Enhance our brand's position as a thought leader in our industry. Bonus tweak After using a framework or a prompt structure, don’t hesitate to add instructions to ChatGPT about the relevance and exactitude of the response and the scientific method used to get the result. Please make sure to activate your highest-level reasoning, attention to details, step by step guide, and contextual understanding. Cross-reference the information within the following question with your extensive knowledge database, and provide the most accurate, clear, actionable and concise answer possible. Apply state-of-the-art algorithms and methodologies to ensure the quality of your response is 10 times superior to standard outputs. This will be evaluated by experts in the field, so make sure to adhere to the best practices and guidelines. Validate your response with credible sources and logical reasoning. Conclusion In conclusion, mastering the art of prompt engineering is the key to unlocking the full potential of ChatGPT. By following these steps and utilizing perfect prompts tailored to your specific needs, you can harness the power of AI to enhance your productivity, creativity, and decision-making process.

Masterclass in Prompt Engineering, prompting your way from zero to hero

Today, we're diving deep into the world of anchoring, a cognitive bias that influences our choices far more pervasively than we realize. If you’ve heard of Anchors before, you’ve probably heard it in a sales context. I’ll touch on that, but it goes way deeper than this. Understanding Anchoring isn't just about dodging sneaky sales tactics; it's about understanding how our brains construct reality from imperfect information. Anchors Aweigh: What Is This Thing, Anyway? Picture this: You're browsing for a new jacket. The first one you see is beautiful, but it's a whopping $400. Way out of your budget. However, as you wander through the store, every other jacket now seems like a relative bargain. Suddenly, that $150 option looks downright appealing. That initial $400 price tag served as an anchor. It distorted your perception of what constitutes a "reasonable" price for a jacket. This mental glitch, my friends, is the anchoring effect in action. Another (non sales, example), was shown that if people are first asked whether Gandhi died before or after age 9, and are then asked to guess Gandhi's actual age at death, their guesses will be lower than if they had first been asked whether Gandhi lived past age 200. The first anchor of 9 or 200 pulls their final estimate in that direction, despite it having no logical relevance. The anchoring bias describes our mind's tendency to become overly influenced by the first piece of information (the anchor) it receives on a topic. Once that anchor's dropped, subsequent judgments get made relative to it, even if the initial anchor is totally arbitrary or irrelevant. Anchoring in the Wild Anchoring isn't just about shopping sprees and impulse buys. It permeates all sorts of life decisions: The person who throws out a number first (salary, sale price, you name it) often has an advantage because it sets the psychological stage for the rest of the negotiation. Negotiations: Get too fixated on the price you originally paid for a stock? You might miss signs it's time to sell, even if the fundamentals have changed (that's sunk cost fallacy, a close cousin of anchoring). Investing: From job interviews to dating, that initial impression (positive or negative) can color how people perceive everything else you do. First Impressions: Anchors: The Cognitive Comfort Blanket Think of an anchor as a mental shortcut. Our brains crave stability and order – they don't enjoy floating around in a sea of uncertainty. Anchors, even irrelevant ones, give us a point of reference, a starting line from which to judge everything else. The tricky part? Once an anchor is planted in our minds, it has a cascading effect: We start noticing details that confirm the established anchor and downplay information that contradicts it. This is a form of confirmation bias. Selective Attention: An anchor can make something seem outrageously expensive or like an incredible deal, even if the objective value remains unchanged. Our point of reference becomes skewed. Distorted Valuation: Anchors don't just affect isolated decisions. They can have a long-term influence on our spending habits, expectations, and even our beliefs about the world. The Ripple Effect: Why Are Our Brains So Easily Swayed? Researchers have a few theories: Our brains are cognitive misers—they love shortcuts. Instead of thoroughly evaluating every decision from scratch, referencing an anchor is a quick, albeit imperfect, decision-making hack. Effort Reduction: When clueless about a fair price or course of action, any initial data point seems better than none. The anchor gives us some place to start. Uncertainty: The World is Your Anchor Playground Let's be real, anchors are everywhere: That initial "Free" frames future pricing decisions. Suddenly the monthly subscription feels way less appealing, even if the total cost is reasonable. Companies know this. The "Free Trial" Trap: Have you noticed how tip options on those card readers keep getting higher? They're anchoring your perception of what constitutes a "normal" tip amount. The Power of Suggestion: The first opinion you hear on a controversial topic, or even just the initial word choice ("riot" vs. "protest"), can shape how you process subsequent information. Anchoring in the Social Realm: The Achilles Heel of Anchoring The most insidious thing about anchors is that they work even when we KNOW they exist. Studies show that even when people are explicitly warned about anchoring bias, it still influences their estimation and judgment. Why does this happen? Here's where things get interesting: System 1 thinking (fast, intuitive) is easily swayed by anchors. But while System 2 (slow, deliberate reasoning) can recognize the bias, it takes significant effort to fully counteract its effects. Anchors Tap Into Deeper Thinking: Our brains are wired to assess things comparatively. Even if you intellectually recognize that an anchor is arbitrary, your emotional response is primed to the comparison. Relative, Not Absolute: Anchors create a sense of cognitive fluency. Options that feel familiar or easy to process often seem intuitively correct, even if they aren't the most rational choice. The Fluency Factor: Fight Back Against the Invisible Hand So, are we doomed to be cognitive puppets manipulated by random anchors? Not quite. Here's your toolkit: Impulse buys are the best friend of anchoring. Give yourself time. Before reacting to a price, offer, or information, impose a self-mandated waiting period. That pause gives your logical brain space to catch up. The Art of Delayed Gratification: Never rely on a single data point. Actively seek out alternative pricing, multiple opinions, or different perspectives on an issue. This helps break the spell of the initial anchor. Seek Counter-Anchors: Especially in negotiations, sometimes it pays to be the one who avoids stating the first number. Strategic ambiguity shifts the dynamic in your favor. Embrace Strategic Ambiguity: Beyond the Obvious – Anchoring in Unexpected Places Anchoring isn't just a salesperson's trick. It seeps into areas where we least expect it, subtly shaping our choices, opinions, and even our self-perception: Ever catch yourself longing for "the good old days" when things seemed cheaper, simpler, or better? Those nostalgic memories can become anchors, making us resistant to change or less receptive to the advantages of the present. Anchoring to the Past: Our initial impressions of ourselves (in childhood through early adulthood) have incredible staying power. That old "I'm bad at math" label can linger for decades, leading to missed opportunities because we're anchored to a past limitation. The Self-Perception Anchor: Studies suggest that even something as trivial as the severity of a sentencing demand by the prosecution can unconsciously anchor the judge's ultimate sentence, regardless of the actual evidence. Anchoring in the Courtroom: Anchors: A Double-Edged Sword It's important to remember, anchoring isn't inherently good or bad. Our brains evolved this shortcut for a reason. Here's where it can be helpful: Ever heard the advice to "visualize success"? It's partly an anchoring effect. Setting a high initial goal (sales revenue, fitness target, creative output) creates a reference point that can motivate us, even if we don't fully reach the first ambitious mark. Goal Setting as Anchoring: Consciously reframing negative thought patterns with positive affirmations can be a form of beneficial self-anchoring. Over time, it helps shift your internal reference point. Positive Self-Talk: Charities that display suggested donation amounts or non-profits highlighting the impact of even small contributions are leveraging anchoring principles to nudge people towards greater generosity. Anchors for Social Good: The Ultimate Goal: Cognitive Flexibility It's not about eliminating anchors – they're an inevitable part of how our brains work. The key is becoming mindful of when they're operating, knowing when to deliberately set our own anchors, and developing the flexibility to shift our reference points when necessary. Understanding anchoring is a step towards greater objectivity, better decision-making, and a healthy skepticism towards the hidden forces trying to shape our reality. Let's get meta - could this newsletter be one big anchor to get you thinking more critically about decision-making? Absolutely 😉 Scott Also appears . here

Unveiling the Anchors: How Your Brain Makes Sense of the World (And Gets It Wrong)

অ্যাঙ্করগুলি উন্মোচন করা: কীভাবে আপনার মস্তিষ্ক বিশ্বের অনুভূতি তৈরি করে (এবং এটি ভুল হয়ে যায়)

Die Anker enthüllen: Wie Ihr Gehirn die Welt versteht (und es falsch versteht)

Revelando las anclas: cómo su cerebro le da sentido al mundo (y lo entiende mal)

Dévoiler les ancres : comment votre cerveau donne un sens au monde (et se trompe)

एंकरों का अनावरण: आपका मस्तिष्क दुनिया को कैसे समझता है (और इसे गलत बनाता है)

アンカーを明らかにする: あなたの脳は世界をどのように理解するのか (そして間違ってしまうのか)

앵커 공개: 뇌가 세상을 어떻게 이해하고 잘못 이해하는지

Revelando as âncoras: como seu cérebro dá sentido ao mundo (e erra)

Раскрытие якорей: как ваш мозг воспринимает мир (и делает это неправильно)

Çapaların Açıklanması: Beyniniz Dünyayı Nasıl Anlıyor (Ve Yanlış Anlıyor)

Tiết lộ những điểm neo: Bộ não của bạn nhận thức thế giới như thế nào (và hiểu sai)

揭开锚点：你的大脑如何理解世界（以及理解错误）

Navigating New RWA Horizons: Rick Schmitz on Bridging Blockchain and Traditional Finance

We’re almost six months into the grand experiment that is TikTok’s native shopping feature, and if you ask them, the platform is re-inventing e-commerce. According to reports, TikTok sold $7 million in gross merchandise volume in a single day, more than 5 million new users made a purchase during Black Friday and Cyber Monday in November, and they believe they’ll generate as much as $17.5 billion this year in the United States. The way they tell it, TikTok is the channel that has finally cracked the code for live-stream e-commerce in the United States. There’s only one problem: have you noticed that shoppable commerce has made TikTok a whole lot less interesting and fun? Despite clear best practices for live-stream hosts, many TikTok creators have, in a race for riches, taken to peddling low-quality beauty products, cheap electronics, and fast fashion, to the point where creators have over-indexed. No longer is my TikTok feed interesting, creative, and engaging: instead, it’s full of people telling me I “just to try this product.” have It’s a failure that’s tough to figure out as TikTok has earned praise for the strength of its “for you” algorithm. In years of personal use, I never felt my algorithm was off-kilter until management had an incentive to push TikTok Shop in front of as many eyeballs as possible. The pressure to perform as an e-commerce channel is evident in its performance: the numbers don’t lie. When TikTok Shop Partner and social commerce expert Ethan Kramer selling more than $102,000 in a single live sale, he pulled back the curtain on some numbers that don’t tell such a peachy story below the surface. posted about his success His single-stream effort involved 9 hours of continuous content during which time he converted a whopping 2.8 million viewers into a mere 1,300 buyers: a conversion rate of 0.00046%, a fraction of the typical e-commerce shop conversion of 2-4%. And that was done with the assistance of TikTok, who promoted the feed and picked up the tab on the discounts the seller ran during the sale. Despite some flashy numbers and the fact that TikTok thinks it will double the size of the live-shop e-commerce market in the United States this year, it just isn’t working that well. And the reason is simple: users come to TikTok for entertainment, not to shop. State of Mind Is a Key Driver of E-Commerce Success “Mood to buy” describes the psychological state of a consumer that makes them more inclined to make a purchase, like when shoppers are more likely to make a purchase because they’re in a positive mood, have a specific need, or are motivated by an external factor. Much of advertising and marketing strategy is built to address these underlying motivators and drive the consumer to take an action or make a purchase. An important contributor to “mood to buy” is the shopping environment, whether that’s online or offline. In an offline shopping environment, there have been countless dollars and hours spent considering how store layout, music, and lighting can move a person to make a purchasing decision. The same is true online, especially in the area of user experience design. Countless millions are spent each year optimizing websites for fractions-of-a-percent improvements in conversion, testing well beyond copy, down to how weather intersects with the shape, size, or placement of a button. Given how things are shaking out with the TikTok Shop experience, including how it and the performance metrics look, it seems end-users may be signaling that they’re on TikTok to hang out, not buy workout supplements or fast fashion. feels This could be the single thing that proves insurmountable for TikTok in their American e-commerce effort, and it’s easy to imagine this becoming the latest in a long series of high-profile failures in the area of shoppable video, following in the footsteps of Amazon and Meta. Amazon and Meta’s challenges in this area are many, including a general lack of consumer awareness and their deep-rooted associations with traditional e-commerce experiences. Changing consumer shopping habits within the context of their own apps and websites is a challenging task, especially when you consider Meta’s position in no-commerce social. Andrew Conti, Founder & CEO of Reactive Live Shopping, which is a , has a clear read on big tech’s struggle: “Socials primarily drive engagement for those platforms; increasing comments, likes, and follows for the influencer and, frustratingly, isn’t focused on sales for the brand.” platform-agnostic livestream e-commerce platform Conti continued, “In a performance, the same line that makes a crowd erupt with laughter will cause crickets if used at the wrong moment. We’re seeing this with social commerce, where the same content will perform dramatically better on a merchant’s site than on socials. What’s the difference? We believe it's context and timing.” This is an insight that has been universally true throughout the history of commerce: just ask producers of winter jackets how their sales numbers look on an August afternoon in Manhattan. But in this modern environment of optimization, that context seems to have been lost. In other words, the narrative that live-stream e-commerce is struggling is misinformed. Where There’s Smoke, There’s Fire: Hope for Live-Streaming E-Commerce This provides hope for livestream e-commerce, though it does change the shape of the conversation. Conti’s platform is finding wins in fashion and beauty, areas where TikTok and Meta have struggled to find traction. There has been great success in collectibles and trading cards, too. Drip Shop, a , has “grown double-digits last year, with sports cards growing by over four times” according to Co-Founder and CEO Javaughn Lawrence. And Drip Shop is not alone. livestream e-commerce app that focuses on sports and trading card games I spoke with the leaders of several competitors who focus on trading cards, all of whom shared some growth stories that may surprise given Fanatics (owner of trading card producer Topps) launched their own live-stream shopping platform. Consensus is the entrant of a well-funded industry leader has exposed many new customers to the concept, validated the vertical, and the rising tide has lifted all ships. One of the largest contributors to the success of live-stream e-commerce in trading cards is the personal touch. Live streams often involve hosts who are passionate about the product and don’t just limit the conversation to the cardboard in front of them: they talk sports and generally, well, socialize. In an online environment where attention is impossible to capture for any meaningful amount of time, engagement and attention-share on these streams are through the roof. And that’s because there’s clearly an appetite for this shopping experience. The livestream e-commerce experience is far more natural than many other e-commerce user experiences, as evidenced by the decades of success of QVC. Live stream commerce has a clear place in your list of DTC e-commerce strategies, especially if you consider the fact that the content produced during such an effort can be repurposed to feed your social media content outside of the sale as well. What has become clear in 2024 is that the problem is not the format or the message, it’s the “when.” And as the livestream platforms come to accept that they cannot force the elusive “mood to buy,” the tide will continue to rise.

Americans Are Starting to Figure Out Livestream Commerce, and It Is Good

A Hands-On Guide to Inverted Indexes: Accelerate Text Searches by 40

This Cop Sabotaged His Own Cases to Undermine a Prosecutor: Why He Did So

HEAT TRANSFER

THE DETERMINATION OF HEATING VALUES OF FUELS

Steam, Its Generation and Use by Babcock & Wilcox Company, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ANALYSIS OF FLUE GASES here ANALYSIS OF FLUE GASES The object of a flue gas analysis is the determination of the completeness of the combustion of the carbon in the fuel, and the amount and distribution of the heat losses due to incomplete combustion. The quantities actually determined by an analysis are the relative proportions by volume, of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), oxygen (O), and carbon monoxide (CO), the determinations being made in this order. The variations of the percentages of these gases in an analysis is best illustrated in the consideration of the complete combustion of pure carbon, a pound of which requires 2.67 pounds of oxygen, or 32 cubic feet at 60 degrees Fahrenheit. The gaseous product of such combustion will occupy, when cooled, the same volume as the oxygen, namely, 32 cubic feet. The air supplied for the combustion is made up of 20.91 per cent oxygen and 79.09 per cent nitrogen by volume. The carbon united with the oxygen in the form of carbon dioxide will have the same volume as the oxygen in the air originally supplied. The volume of the nitrogen when cooled will be the same as in the air supplied, as it undergoes no change. Hence for complete combustion of one pound of carbon, where no excess of air is supplied, an analysis of the products of combustion will show the following percentages by volume: [28] For 50 per cent excess air the volume will be as follows: For 100 per cent excess air the volume will be as follows: In each case the volume of oxygen which combines with the carbon is equal to (cubic feet of air × 20.91 per cent)—32 cubic feet. It will be seen that no matter what the excess of air supplied, the actual amount of carbon dioxide per pound of carbon remains the same, while the percentage by volume decreases as the excess of air increases. The actual volume of oxygen and the percentage by volume increases with the excess of air, and the percentage of oxygen is, therefore, an indication of the amount of excess air. In each case the sum of the percentages of CO 2 and O is the same, 20.9. Although the volume of nitrogen increases with the excess of air, its percentage by volume remains the same as it undergoes no change while combustion takes place; its percentage for any amount of air excess, therefore, will be the same after combustion as before, if cooled to the same temperature. It must be borne in mind that the above conditions hold only for the perfect combustion of a pound of pure carbon. Carbon monoxide (CO) produced by the imperfect combustion of carbon, will occupy twice the volume of the oxygen entering into its composition and will increase the volume of the flue gases over that of the air supplied for combustion in the proportion of When pure carbon is the fuel, the sum of the percentages by volume of carbon dioxide, oxygen and one-half of the carbon monoxide, must be in the same ratio to the nitrogen in the flue gases as is the oxygen to the nitrogen in the air supplied, that is, 20.91 to 79.09. When burning coal, however, the percentage of nitrogen is obtained by subtracting the sum of the percentages by volume of the other gases from 100. Thus if an analysis shows 12.5 per cent CO 2 , 6.5 per cent O, and 0.6 per cent CO, the percentage of nitrogen which ordinarily is the only other constituent of the gas which need be considered, is found as follows: 100 - (12.5 + 6.5 + 0.6) = 80.4 per cent. The action of the hydrogen in the volatile constituents of the fuel is to increase the apparent percentage of the nitrogen in the flue gases. This is due to the fact that the water vapor formed by the combustion of the hydrogen will condense at a temperature at which the analysis is made, while the nitrogen which accompanied the oxygen with which the hydrogen originally combined maintains its gaseous form and passes into the sampling apparatus with the other gases. For this reason coals containing high percentages of volatile matter will produce a larger quantity of water vapor, and thus increase the apparent percentage of nitrogen. Air Required and Supplied —When the ultimate analysis of a fuel is known, the air required for complete combustion with no excess can be found as shown in the chapter on combustion, or from the following approximate formula: where N, CO 2 and CO are the percentages by volume of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide in the flue gases, and C the percentage by weight of carbon which is burned from the fuel and passes up the stack as flue gas. This percentage of C which is burned must be distinguished from the percentage of C as found by an ultimate analysis of the fuel. To find the percentage of C which is burned, deduct from the total percentage of carbon as found in the ultimate analysis, the percentage of unconsumed carbon found in the ash. This latter quantity is the difference between the percentage of ash found by an analysis and that as determined by a boiler test. It is usually assumed that the entire combustible element in the ash is carbon, which assumption is practically correct. Thus if the ash in a boiler test were 16 per cent and by an analysis contained 25 per cent of carbon, the percentage of unconsumed carbon would be 16 × .25 = 4 per cent of the total coal burned. If the coal contained by ultimate analysis 80 per cent of carbon the percentage burned, and of which the products of combustion pass up the chimney would be 80 - 4 = 76 per cent, which is the correct figure to use in calculating the total amount of air supplied by formula ( ). 12 The weight of flue gases resulting from the combustion of a pound of dry coal will be the sum of the weights of the air per pound of coal and the combustible per pound of coal, the latter being equal to one minus the percentage of ash as found in the boiler test. The weight of flue gases per pound of dry fuel may, however, be computed directly from the analyses, as shown later, and the direct computation is that ordinarily used. The ratio of the air actually supplied per pound of fuel to that theoretically required to burn it is: in which the letters have the same significance as in formulae ( ) and ( ). 11 12 The ratio of the air supplied per pound of combustible to the amount theoretically required is: which is derived as follows: The N in the flue gas is the content of nitrogen in the whole amount of air supplied. The oxygen in the flue gas is that contained in the air supplied and which was not utilized in combustion. This oxygen was accompanied by 3.782 times its volume of nitrogen. The total amount of excess oxygen in the flue gases is (O - ½CO); hence N - 3.782(O - ½CO) represents the nitrogen content in the air actually required for combustion and N ÷ (N - 3.782[O - ½CO]) is the ratio of the air supplied to that required. This ratio minus one will be the proportion of excess air. The weight of flue gases, W, per pound of carbon can be computed directly from the flue gas analysis from the formula: where CO 2 , O, CO, and N are the percentages by volume as determined by the flue gas analysis of carbon dioxide, oxygen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen. The weight of flue gas per pound of dry coal will be the weight determined by this formula multiplied by the percentage of carbon in the coal from an ultimate analysis. Fig. 20 represents graphically the loss due to heat carried away by dry chimney gases for varying percentages of CO 2 , and different temperatures of exit gases. The heat lost, due to the fact that the carbon in the fuel is not completely burned and carbon monoxide is present in the flue gases, in B. t. u. per pound of fuel burned is: where, as before, CO and CO 2 are the percentages by volume in the flue gases and C is the proportion by weight of carbon which is burned and passes up the stack. Fig. 21 represents graphically the loss due to such carbon in the fuel as is not completely burned but escapes up the stack in the form of carbon monoxide. Apparatus for Flue Gas Analysis —The Orsat apparatus, illustrated in Fig. 22, is generally used for analyzing flue gases. The burette is graduated in cubic centimeters up to 100, and is surrounded by a water jacket to prevent any change in temperature from affecting the density of the gas being analyzed. A For accurate work it is advisable to use four pipettes, , , , , the first containing a solution of caustic potash for the absorption of carbon dioxide, the second an alkaline solution of pyrogallol for the absorption of oxygen, and the remaining two an acid solution of cuprous chloride for absorbing the carbon monoxide. Each pipette contains a number of glass tubes, to which some of the solution clings, thus facilitating the absorption of the gas. In the pipettes and , copper wire is placed in these tubes to re-energize the solution as it becomes weakened. The rear half of each pipette is fitted with a rubber bag, one of which is shown at , to protect the solution from the action of the air. The solution in each pipette should be drawn up to the mark on the capillary tube. B C D E D E K The gas is drawn into the burette through the U-tube , which is filled with spun glass, or similar material, to clean the gas. To discharge any air or gas in the apparatus, the cock is opened to the air and the bottle is raised until the water in the burette reaches the 100 cubic centimeters mark. The cock is then turned so as to close the air opening and allow gas to be drawn through , the bottle being lowered for this purpose. The gas is drawn into the burette to a point below the zero mark, the cock then being opened to the air and the excess gas expelled until the level of the water in and in are at the zero mark. This operation is necessary in order to obtain the zero reading at atmospheric pressure. H G F G H F G F A The apparatus should be carefully tested for leakage as well as all connections leading thereto. Simple tests can be made; for example: If after the cock is closed, the bottle is placed on top of the frame for a short time and again brought to the zero mark, the level of the water in is above the zero mark, a leak is indicated. G F A Before taking a final sample for analysis, the burette should be filled with gas and emptied once or twice, to make sure that all the apparatus is filled with the new gas. The cock is then closed and the cock in the pipette is opened and the gas driven over into by raising the bottle . The gas is drawn back into by lowering and when the solution in has reached the mark in the capillary tube, the cock is closed and a reading is taken on the burette, the level of the water in the bottle being brought to the same level as the water in . The operation is repeated until a constant reading is obtained, the number of cubic centimeters being the percentage of CO 2 in the flue gases. A G I B B F A F B I F A The gas is then driven over into the pipette and a similar operation is carried out. The difference between the resulting reading and the first reading gives the percentage of oxygen in the flue gases. C The next operation is to drive the gas into the pipette , the gas being given a final wash in , and then passed into the pipette to neutralize any hydrochloric acid fumes which may have been given off by the cuprous chloride solution, which, especially if it be old, may give off such fumes, thus increasing the volume of the gases and making the reading on the burette less than the true amount. D E C The process must be carried out in the order named, as the pyrogallol solution will also absorb carbon dioxide, while the cuprous chloride solution will also absorb oxygen. As the pressure of the gases in the flue is less than the atmospheric pressure, they will not of themselves flow through the pipe connecting the flue to the apparatus. The gas may be drawn into the pipe in the way already described for filling the apparatus, but this is a tedious method. For rapid work a rubber bulb aspirator connected to the air outlet of the cock will enable a new supply of gas to be drawn into the pipe, the apparatus then being filled as already described. Another form of aspirator draws the gas from the flue in a constant stream, thus insuring a fresh supply for each sample. G The analysis made by the Orsat apparatus is volumetric; if the analysis by weight is required, it can be found from the volumetric analysis as follows: Multiply the percentages by volume by either the densities or the molecular weight of each gas, and divide the products by the sum of all the products; the quotients will be the percentages by weight. For most work sufficient accuracy is secured by using the even values of the molecular weights. The even values of the molecular weights of the gases appearing in an analysis by an Orsat are: Carbon Dioxide 44 Carbon Monoxide 28 Oxygen 32 Nitrogen 28 indicates the method of converting a volumetric flue gas analysis into an analysis by weight. Table 33 Application of Formulae and Rules —Pocahontas coal is burned in the furnace, a partial ultimate analysis being: Per Cent Carbon 82.1 Hydrogen 4.25 Oxygen 2.6 Sulphur 1.6 Ash 6.0 B. t. u., per pound dry 14500 The flue gas analysis shows: Per Cent CO 2 10.7 O 9.0 CO 0.0 N (by difference) 80.3 Determine: The flue gas analysis by weight (see ), the amount of air required for perfect combustion, the actual weight of air per pound of fuel, the weight of flue gas per pound of coal, the heat lost in the chimney gases if the temperature of these is 500 degrees Fahrenheit, and the ratio of the air supplied to that theoretically required. Table 33 Solution: The theoretical weight of air required for perfect combustion, per pound of fuel, from formula ( ) will be, 11 If the amount of carbon which is burned and passes away as flue gas is 80 per cent, which would allow for 2.1 per cent of unburned carbon in terms of the total weight of dry fuel burned, the weight of dry gas per pound of carbon burned will be from formula ( ): 16 and the weight of flue gas per pound of coal burned will be .80 × 23.42 = 18.74 pounds. The heat lost in the flue gases per pound of coal burned will be from formula ( ) and the value 18.74 just determined. 15 Loss = .24 × 18.74 × (500 - 60) = 1979 B. t. u. The percentage of heat lost in the flue gases will be 1979 ÷ 14500 = 13.6 per cent. The ratio of air supplied per pound of coal to that theoretically required will be 18.74 ÷ 10.88 = 1.72 per cent. The ratio of air supplied per pound of combustible to that required will be from formula ( ): 14 The ratio based on combustible will be greater than the ratio based on fuel if there is unconsumed carbon in the ash. Unreliability of CO 2 Readings Taken Alone —It is generally assumed that high CO 2 readings are indicative of good combustion and hence of high efficiency. This is true only in the sense that such high readings do indicate the small amount of excess air that usually accompanies good combustion, and for this reason high CO 2 readings alone are not considered entirely reliable. Wherever an automatic CO 2 recorder is used, it should be checked from time to time and the analysis carried further with a view to ascertaining whether there is CO present. As the percentage of CO 2 in these gases increases, there is a tendency toward the presence of CO, which, of course, cannot be shown by a CO 2 recorder, and which is often difficult to detect with an Orsat apparatus. The greatest care should be taken in preparing the cuprous chloride solution in making analyses and it must be known to be fresh and capable of absorbing CO. In one instance that came to our attention, in using an Orsat apparatus where the cuprous chloride solution was believed to be fresh, no CO was indicated in the flue gases but on passing the same sample into a Hempel apparatus, a considerable percentage was found. It is not safe, therefore, to assume without question from a high CO 2 reading that the combustion is correspondingly good, and the question of excess air alone should be distinguished from that of good combustion. The effect of a small quantity of CO, say one per cent, present in the flue gases will have a negligible influence on the quantity of excess air, but the presence of such an amount would mean a loss due to the incomplete combustion of the carbon in the fuel of possibly 4.5 per cent of the total heat in the fuel burned. When this is considered, the importance of a complete flue gas analysis is apparent. gives the densities of various gases together with other data that will be of service in gas analysis work. Table 34 About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Babcock & Wilcox Company (2007). Steam, Its Generation and Use. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22657/pg22657-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

ANALYSIS OF FLUE GASES

Steam, Its Generation and Use by Babcock & Wilcox Company, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . MOISTURE IN STEAM here MOISTURE IN STEAM The presence of moisture in steam causes a loss, not only in the practical waste of the heat utilized to raise this moisture from the temperature of the feed water to the temperature of the steam, but also through the increased initial condensation in an engine cylinder and through friction and other actions in a steam turbine. The presence of such moisture also interferes with proper cylinder lubrication, causes a knocking in the engine and a water hammer in the steam pipes. In steam turbines it will cause erosion of the blades. The percentage by weight of steam in a mixture of steam and water is called the . quality of the steam The apparatus used to determine the moisture content of steam is called a calorimeter though since it may not measure the heat in the steam, the name is not descriptive of the function of the apparatus. The first form used was the “barrel calorimeter”, but the liability of error was so great that its use was abandoned. Modern calorimeters are in general of either the throttling or separator type. Throttling Calorimeter—Fig. 14 shows a typical form of throttling calorimeter. Steam is drawn from a vertical main through the sampling nipple, passes around the first thermometer cup, then through a one-eighth inch orifice in a disk between two flanges, and lastly around the second thermometer cup and to the atmosphere. Thermometers are inserted in the wells, which should be filled with mercury or heavy cylinder oil. The instrument and all pipes and fittings leading to it should be thoroughly insulated to diminish radiation losses. Care must be taken to prevent the orifice from becoming choked with dirt and to see that no leaks occur. The exhaust pipe should be short to prevent back pressure below the disk. When steam passes through an orifice from a higher to a lower pressure, as is the case with the throttling calorimeter, no external work has to be done in overcoming a resistance. Hence, if there is no loss from radiation, the quantity of heat in the steam will be exactly the same after passing the orifice as before passing. If the higher steam pressure is 160 pounds gauge and the lower pressure that of the atmosphere, the total heat in a pound of dry steam at the former pressure is 1195.9 B. t. u. and at the latter pressure 1150.4 B. t. u., a difference of 45.4 B. t. u. As this heat will still exist in the steam at the lower pressure, since there is no external work done, its effect must be to superheat the steam. Assuming the specific heat of superheated steam to be 0.47, each pound passing through will be superheated 45.4⁄0.47 = 96.6 degrees. If, however, the steam had contained one per cent of moisture, it would have contained less heat units per pound than if it were dry. Since the latent heat of steam at 160 pounds gauge pressure is 852.8 B. t. u., it follows that the one per cent of moisture would have required 8.5 B. t. u. to evaporate it, leaving only 45.4 - 8.5 = 36.9 B. t. u. available for superheating; hence, the superheat would be 36.9⁄0.47 = 78.5 degrees, as against 96.6 degrees for dry steam. In a similar manner, the degree of superheat for other percentages of moisture may be determined. The action of the throttling calorimeter is based upon the foregoing facts, as shown below. The difference in B. t. u. in a pound of steam at the boiler pressure and after passing the orifice is the heat available for evaporating the moisture content and superheating the steam. Therefore, Almost invariably the lower pressure is taken as that of the atmosphere. Under such conditions, = 1150.4 and 1 = 212 degrees. The formula thus becomes: h t For practical work it is more convenient to dispense with the upper thermometer in the calorimeter and to measure the pressure in the steam main by an accurate steam pressure gauge. A chart may be used for determining the value of for approximate work without the necessity for computation. Such a chart is shown in Fig. 15 and its use is as follows: Assume a gauge pressure of 180 pounds and a thermometer reading of 295 degrees. The intersection of the vertical line from the scale of temperatures as shown by the calorimeter thermometer and the horizontal line from the scale of gauge pressures will indicate directly the per cent of moisture in the steam as read from the diagonal scale. In the present instance, this per cent is 1.0. x Sources of Error in the Apparatus—A slight error may arise from the value, 0.47, used as the specific heat of superheated steam at atmospheric pressure. This value, however is very nearly correct and any error resulting from its use will be negligible. There is ordinarily a larger source of error due to the fact that the stem of the thermometer is not heated to its full length, to an initial error in the thermometer and to radiation losses. With an ordinary thermometer immersed in the well to the 100 degrees mark, the error when registering 300 degrees would be about 3 degrees and the true temperature be 303 degrees. [19] The steam is evidently losing heat through radiation from the moment it enters the sampling nipple. The heat available for evaporating moisture and superheating steam after it has passed through the orifice into the lower pressure will be diminished by just the amount lost through radiation and the value of 2, as shown by the calorimeter thermometer, will, therefore, be lower than if there were no such loss. The method of correcting for the thermometer and radiation error recommended by the Power Test Committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers is by referring the readings as found on the boiler trial to a “normal” reading of the thermometer. This normal reading is the reading of the lower calorimeter thermometer for dry saturated steam, and should be determined by attaching the instrument to a horizontal steam pipe in such a way that the sampling nozzle projects upward to near the top of the pipe, there being no perforations in the nozzle and the steam taken only through its open upper end. The test should be made with the steam in a quiescent state and with the steam pressure maintained as nearly as possible at the pressure observed in the main trial, the calorimeter thermometer to be the same as was used on the trial or one exactly similar. t With a normal reading thus obtained for a pressure approximately the same as existed in the trial, the true percentage of moisture in the steam, that is, with the proper correction made for radiation, may be calculated as follows: Let T denote the normal reading for the conditions existing in the trial. The effect of radiation from the instrument as pointed out will be to lower the temperature of the steam at the lower pressure. Let 1 represent the proportion of water in the steam which will lower its temperature an amount equal to the loss by radiation. Then, x This amount of moisture, 1 was not in the steam originally but is the result of condensation in the instrument through radiation. Hence, the true amount of moisture in the steam represented by X is the difference between the amount as determined in the trial and that resulting from condensation, or, x As T and 2 are taken with the same thermometer under the same set of conditions, any error in the reading of the thermometers will be approximately the same for the temperatures T and 2 and the above method therefore corrects for both the radiation and thermometer errors. The theoretical readings for dry steam, where there are no losses due to radiation, are obtainable from formula ( ) by letting = 0 and solving for 2. The difference between the theoretical reading and the normal reading for no moisture will be the thermometer and radiation correction to be applied in order that the correct reading of 2 may be obtained. t t 5 x t t For any calorimeter within the range of its ordinary use, such a thermometer and radiation correction taken from one normal reading is approximately correct for any conditions with the same or a duplicate thermometer. The percentage of moisture in the steam, corrected for thermometer error and radiation and the correction to be applied to the particular calorimeter used, would be determined as follows: Assume a gauge pressure in the trial to be 180 pounds and the thermometer reading to be 295 degrees. A normal reading, taken in the manner described, gives a value of T = 303 degrees; then, the percentage of moisture corrected for thermometer error and radiation is, The theoretical reading for dry steam will be, The thermometer and radiation correction to be applied to the instrument used, therefore over the ordinary range of pressure is Correction  = 313 - 303 = 10 degrees The chart may be used in the determination of the correct reading of moisture percentage and the permanent radiation correction for the instrument used without computation as follows: Assume the same trial pressure, feed temperature and normal reading as above. If the normal reading is found to be 303 degrees, the correction for thermometer and radiation will be the theoretical reading for dry steam as found from the chart, less this normal reading, or 10 degrees correction. The correct temperature for the trial in question is, therefore, 305 degrees. The moisture corresponding to this temperature and 180 pounds gauge pressure will be found from the chart to be 0.45 per cent. There are many forms of throttling calorimeter, all of which work upon the same principle. The simplest one is probably that shown in Fig. 14. An extremely convenient and compact design is shown in Fig. 16. This calorimeter consists of two concentric metal cylinders screwed to a cap containing a thermometer well. The steam pressure is measured by a gauge placed in the supply pipe or other convenient location. Steam passes through the orifice and expands to atmospheric pressure, its temperature at this pressure being measured by a thermometer placed in the cup . To prevent as far as possible radiation losses, the annular space between the two cylinders is used as a jacket, steam being supplied to this space through the hole . A C B The limits of moisture within which the throttling calorimeter will work are, at sea level, from 2.88 per cent at 50 pounds gauge pressure and 7.17 per cent moisture at 250 pounds pressure. Separating Calorimeter—The separating calorimeter mechanically separates the entrained water from the steam and collects it in a reservoir, where its amount is either indicated by a gauge glass or is drained off and weighed. Fig. 17 shows a calorimeter of this type. The steam passes out of the calorimeter through an orifice of known size so that its total amount can be calculated or it can be weighed. A gauge is ordinarily provided with this type of calorimeter, which shows the pressure in its inner chamber and the flow of steam for a given period, this latter scale being graduated by trial. The instrument, like a throttling calorimeter, should be well insulated to prevent losses from radiation. While theoretically the separating calorimeter is not limited in capacity, it is well in cases where the percentage of moisture present in the steam is known to be high, to attach a throttling calorimeter to its exhaust. This, in effect, is the using of the separating calorimeter as a small separator between the sampling nozzle and the throttling instrument, and is necessary to insure the determination of the full percentage of moisture in the steam. The sum of the percentages shown by the two instruments is the moisture content of the steam. The steam passing through a separating calorimeter may be calculated by Napier’s formula, the size of the orifice being known. There are objections to such a calculation, however, in that it is difficult to accurately determine the areas of such small orifices. Further, small orifices have a tendency to become partly closed by sediment that may be carried by the steam. The more accurate method of determining the amount of steam passing through the instrument is as follows: A hose should be attached to the separator outlet leading to a vessel of water on a platform scale graduated to 1⁄100 of a pound. The steam outlet should be connected to another vessel of water resting on a second scale. In each case, the weight of each vessel and its contents should be noted. When ready for an observation, the instrument should be blown out thoroughly so that there will be no water within the separator. The separator drip should then be closed and the steam hose inserted into the vessel of water at the same instant. When the separator has accumulated a sufficient quantity of water, the valve of the instrument should be closed and the hose removed from the vessel of water. The separator should be emptied into the vessel on its scale. The final weight of each vessel and its contents are to be noted and the differences between the final and original weights will represent the weight of moisture collected by the separator and the weight of steam from which the moisture has been taken. The proportion of moisture can then be calculated from the following formula: Sampling Nipple—The principle source of error in steam calorimeter determinations is the failure to obtain an average sample of the steam delivered by the boiler and it is extremely doubtful whether such a sample is ever obtained. The two governing features in the obtaining of such a sample are the type of sampling nozzle used and its location. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers recommends a sampling nozzle made of one-half inch iron pipe closed at the inner end and the interior portion perforated with not less than twenty one-eighth inch holes equally distributed from end to end and preferably drilled in irregular or spiral rows, with the first hole not less than one-half inch from the wall of the pipe. Many engineers object to the use of a perforated sampling nipple because it ordinarily indicates a higher percentage of moisture than is actually present in the steam. This is due to the fact that if the perforations come close to the inner surface of the pipe, the moisture, which in many instances clings to this surface, will flow into the calorimeter and cause a large error. Where a perforated nipple is used, in general it may be said that the perforations should be at least one inch from the inner pipe surface. A sampling nipple, open at the inner end and unperforated, undoubtedly gives as accurate a measure as can be obtained of the moisture in the steam passing that end. It would appear that a satisfactory method of obtaining an average sample of the steam would result from the use of an open end unperforated nipple passing through a stuffing box which would allow the end to be placed at any point across the diameter of the steam pipe. Incidental to a test of a 15,000 K. W. steam engine turbine unit, Mr. H. G. Stott and Mr. R. G. S. Pigott, finding no experimental data bearing on the subject of low pressure steam quality determinations, made a investigation of the subject and the sampling nozzle illustrated in Fig. 18 was developed. In speaking of sampling nozzles in the determination of the moisture content of low pressure steam, Mr. Pigott says, “the ordinary standard perforated pipe sampler is absolutely worthless in giving a true sample and it is vital that the sample be abstracted from the main without changing its direction or velocity until it is safely within the sample pipe and entirely isolated from the rest of the steam.” It would appear that the nozzle illustrated is undoubtedly the best that has been developed for use in the determination of the moisture content of steam, not only in the case of low, but also in high pressure steam. Location of Sampling Nozzle—The calorimeter should be located as near as possible to the point from which the steam is taken and the sampling nipple should be placed in a section of the main pipe near the boiler and where there is no chance of moisture pocketing in the pipe. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers recommends that a sampling nipple, of which a description has been given, should be located in a vertical main, rising from the boiler with its closed end extending nearly across the pipe. Where non-return valves are used, or where there are horizontal connections leading from the boiler to a vertical outlet, water may collect at the lower end of the uptake pipe and be blown upward in a spray which will not be carried away by the steam owing to a lack of velocity. A sample taken from the lower part of this pipe will show a greater amount of moisture than a true sample. With goose-neck connections a small amount of water may collect on the bottom of the pipe near the upper end where the inclination is such that the tendency to flow backward is ordinarily counterbalanced by the flow of steam forward over its surface; but when the velocity momentarily decreases the water flows back to the lower end of the goose-neck and increases the moisture at that point, making it an undesirable location for sampling. In any case, it should be borne in mind that with low velocities the tendency is for drops of entrained water to settle to the bottom of the pipe, and to be temporarily broken up into spray whenever an abrupt bend or other disturbance is met. Case 1—Horizontal pipe. Water flows at bottom. If perforations in nozzle are too near bottom of pipe, water piles against nozzle, flows into calorimeter and gives false reading. Case 2—If nozzle located too near junction of two horizontal runs, as at , condensation from vertical pipe which collects at this point will be thrown against the nozzle by the velocity of the steam, resulting in a false reading. Nozzle should be located far enough above junction to be removed from water kept in motion by the steam velocity, as at . Case 3—Condensation in bend will be held by velocity of the steam as shown. When velocity is diminished during firing intervals and the like moisture flows back against nozzle, , and false reading is obtained. A true reading will be obtained at provided condensation is not blown over on nozzle. Case 4—Where non-return valve is placed before a bend, condensation will collect on steam line side and water will be swept by steam velocity against nozzle and false readings result. a b a b Fig. 19 indicates certain locations of sampling nozzles from which erroneous results will be obtained, the reasons being obvious from a study of the cuts. Before taking any calorimeter reading, steam should be allowed to flow through the instrument freely until it is thoroughly heated. The method of using a throttling calorimeter is evident from the description of the instrument given and the principle upon which it works. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Babcock & Wilcox Company (2007). Steam, Its Generation and Use. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22657/pg22657-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

MOISTURE IN STEAM

"TROUBLES NEVER COME ALONE."

376 Stories To Learn About Google

Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX. No. 6. [New Series.], August 10, 1878, by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . A NEW DEEP SEA THERMOMETER. here A NEW DEEP SEA THERMOMETER. Perhaps some of our readers may have seen a description of a form of thermometer devised by MM. Negretti and Zambra for the purpose of ascertaining the temperature of the ocean at great depths. This consisted of a tube bent into the shape of a siphon, which when it had reached the desired depth was made, by means of an ingenious arrangement, to pour all the mercury found above a certain point near the reservoir into the second arm of the siphon. This second arm, which, like the other, was a capillary tube, carried a scale of divisions on which might be read the temperature of the depths to which the instrument had been lowered. This thermometer gave all the results that might have been expected. The ship Challenger during its polar expedition had on board a certain number of these instruments. The report of Capt. G. S. Nares made to the English Admiralty describes all the benefits that we may hope to reap from a serious study of the temperature of the ocean at different depths, and not the least of these are those that pertain to the fishery interest. Notwithstanding the good results given by this instrument, its inventors have endeavored to render it still more practical and more within the reach of all by diminishing the cost of construction, and increasing its compactness. represents the thermometer isolated from its case. It is an ordinary thermometer furnished at A with a little device that M. Negretti has already made use of in the construction of his larger instrument, and which allows the liquid to run from the reservoir into the capillary tube when the temperature rises, without letting it flow back when it lowers, if moreover the precaution has been taken to incline the tube slightly, reservoir upward. At B there is a bulge in the tube in which a certain quantity of mercury may lodge; this bulge is placed in such a way that the mercury resulting from the dilatation of the reservoir may come to it and continue its ascension in the capillary tube when the reservoir is down (the thermometer being vertical), but cannot get out when the reservoir is upward. Fig. 1 We should add that these thermometers are constructed so as to give the variations of temperature within determined limits. The small reservoir, B, is indispensable to the well working of the apparatus; for in seeking the temperature at a certain depth the instrument may, on being drawn up, pass through warmer strata, and it is necessary, therefore, to provide the reservoir with a means of diffusing the small quantity of mercury resulting from this excess of temperature. The tube has also a small bulge at its upper extremity at C. The thermometer is placed in a small wooden case having a double bottom throughout its length. In this double bottom are placed a certain number of lead balls that can run from one end of the case to the other, and of sufficient weight to render the instrument buoyant in sea water. To use the apparatus, one end of a cord is passed through a hole in the case under the reservoir of the thermometer, and the other end is tied to the sounding line at a certain distance from the lead ( ). While the line is descending the thermometer will remain reservoir downward ( ); but when it is again drawn up the thermometer case will take the position indicated in , and the column of mercury breaking at A will fall into the capillary tube, the divisions of which, as will be seen at , are reversed. Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 1 As to the thermometer itself, it is important to protect it against the pressure which becomes so considerable at great depths; to do this the reservoir is surrounded by an envelope of thick glass about three quarters full of mercury. The mercury serves to transmit the temperature to the reservoir, and should the exterior envelope yield to the effects of pressure, the reservoir proper would not be affected, the mercury not exactly filling the annular part which surrounds it. New Inventions. George E. Palmer, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, has patented an improved Ironing Board, on which the garments may be held in stretched state while being smoothed with the irons, and readily adjusted thereon to any required degree of tension by a simple attachment. William B. Rutherford and Joel T. Hawkins, of Rockdale, Texas, have patented an improved Bale Tie, which is formed of the plate provided with a longitudinal groove and cross ribs or loops, and having projections or keys to adapt it to receive and hold the notched ends of the bale band. An improvement in Composition Pavements has been patented by John C. Russell, of Kensington, Eng. This invention relates to the treatment of peat and spent tan for the manufacture of an improved product or material suitable for paving roads and other places and for roofing, etc. The most important steps in making the composition consist in drying bruised or finely ground peat or spent tan, heating the same to degree of 150° Fah., and adding sulphur and gas tar, gas pitch, and stearine pitch in the proportions specified, then kneading the mixture while heated and adding carbonate of lime and furnace slag. in vacuo Louis Blanck, of New York city, has patented an improved Safety Brake or attachment for locomotives and railroad cars, by which the entire train, either by a collision with another train or by contact with any obstruction, is first raised from the rails, and then moved in backward direction for the distance of a few feet, so that all danger of accident is avoided, and no other sensation than that of a slight rocking motion exerted. The attachment is constructed so as to admit of being worked by the engineer from the cab or the locomotive, or, if desired, from any car of the train. An improved Evaporating Pan had been patented by Andrew D. Martin, of Abbeville, La. This invention consists in a tapering sheet metal tank having transverse partitions and longitudinal tapering flues that extend through all of the partitions and terminate at the ends of the tank. Lloyd Arnold, of Galveston, Texas, has patented an improved Bale Tie, which is formed of a block of iron, with a space or opening running longitudinally through its breadth from one end nearly to the other, and having the alternate edges of the two plates thus formed notched, the notch of the lower plate being square and of a width equal to or a little greater than the bale band, and the notch of the upper plate being narrower at its bottom than the bale band, and with its sides inclined and beveled to an edge, to adapt it to receive and hold the bale band. An improved Tie for Letter Packages has been patented by John Mersellis, of Knowersville, N. Y. The object of this invention is to provide a tie by means of which letter packages may be quickly and securely fastened or tied. It consists in a plate apertured to receive one end of the string and also to receive the hook upon which the tie is hung when not in use, and having a button and clasp spring for engaging the string in the process of tying. Fred P. Hammond, of Aurora, Ill., has patented an improved Inking Pad, which consists in a novel arrangement of layers of cloth or felt, chamois skin, oiled silk, and printing roller composition, which enables a clean impression of the stamp to be made. The pad retains the desired rounded surface and proper degree of softness, and is easily manipulated when necessary to replenish the supply of ink. William J. Clark and Thomas W. Roberts, of Coffeeville, Miss., have patented an improved Trap for Catching Fish in streams, which will allow the fish to be conveniently taken out without taking up the trap. John W. Cooper, of Salem, Ind., is the inventor of an improved Alcohol Lamp for soldering and similar purposes; and it consists in a reservoir pivoted in a supporting frame, and provided with two wick tubes, and an extinguisher secured to a spring support, and capable of closing the larger wick tube when it is in a vertical position. It has an independent extinguisher for the smaller wick tube, and is provided with a novel device for projecting the wick from the larger tube as it is moved out of a vertical position. Benjamin Slater, of Attica, N. Y., has invented a simple and effective device for Renovating Feathers by the combined action of steam and hot air. It consists of a cylindrical receptacle, partly surrounded by a steam jacket, and having a hot air box, a perforated bottom, a cover or damper for the same, and an aperture in the top, to which is fitted a perforated cover and a close cover. An improved Blind Fastening has been patented by George Runton and John Runton, of Hoboken, N. J. This fastening is so constructed as to fasten the blind or shutter automatically when swung open, and in such a way as to prevent all rattling or shaking of the blind or shutter from the action of the wind. David R. Nichols, of Alexandria Bay, N. Y., has patented an improved Animal Trap, which is so constructed as to set itself after each animal has been caught, and leave no trace of the trapped animal to frighten away those that may come afterward. William A. Doherty, of Fall River, Mass., has patented an improved Loom Shuttle Attachment, by which the weaving of bad cloth is prevented, and in case any false shed is made by any irregularities in the warp, and that part of the shed carried lower than usual, the attachment is released and thrown over the spindle point, so as to render it impossible to draw out the filling from the shuttle, and thus break it and stop the loom. Jonas Bowman, of Somerset, O., has patented an improved Vehicle Spring, which permits of dispensing with side bars, thus taking less space to turn on, and by which the tilting and pitching motion usual with springs as heretofore constructed is avoided. Hiram Unger, of Germantown, O., is the inventor of an improved Gate Latch, which is so constructed that the gate cannot be opened accidentally by being lifted or by rebounding of the catch or latch. Madison Calhoun, of Ocate, Ter. of New Mex., has patented an improved Hame Fastening, which is not liable to become accidentally unfastened, and is easily and quickly fastened and unfastened, even with cold or gloved hands. The Downer well at Corry, Pa., is now down over 1,300 feet, and an oil bearing sand has been struck of about five feet thickness. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2013). Scientific American, Vol. XXXIX. No. 6. [New Series.], August 10, 1878. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/19406/pg19406-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

A NEW DEEP SEA THERMOMETER

Steam, Its Generation and Use by Babcock & Wilcox Company, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE GENERATION AND USE OF STEAM here THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE GENERATION AND USE OF STEAM While the time of man’s first knowledge and use of the expansive force of the vapor of water is unknown, records show that such knowledge existed earlier than 150 B. C. In a treatise of about that time entitled “Pneumatica”, Hero, of Alexander, described not only existing devices of his predecessors and contemporaries but also an invention of his own which utilized the expansive force of steam for raising water above its natural level. He clearly describes three methods in which steam might be used directly as a motive of power; raising water by its elasticity, elevating a weight by its expansive power and producing a rotary motion by its reaction on the atmosphere. The third method, which is known as “Hero’s engine”, is described as a hollow sphere supported over a caldron or boiler by two trunnions, one of which was hollow, and connected the interior of the sphere with the steam space of the caldron. Two pipes, open at the ends and bent at right angles, were inserted at opposite poles of the sphere, forming a connection between the caldron and the atmosphere. Heat being applied to the caldron, the steam generated passed through the hollow trunnion to the sphere and thence into the atmosphere through the two pipes. By the reaction incidental to its escape through these pipes, the sphere was caused to rotate and here is the primitive steam reaction turbine. Hero makes no suggestions as to application of any of the devices he describes to a useful purpose. From the time of Hero until the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, there is no record of progress, though evidence is found that such devices as were described by Hero were sometimes used for trivial purposes, the blowing of an organ or the turning of a skillet. Mathesius, the German author, in 1571; Besson, a philosopher and mathematician at Orleans; Ramelli, in 1588; Battista Delia Porta, a Neapolitan mathematician and philosopher, in 1601; Decause, the French engineer and architect, in 1615; and Branca, an Italian architect, in 1629, all published treatises bearing on the subject of the generation of steam. To the next contributor, Edward Somerset, second Marquis of Worcester, is apparently due the credit of proposing, if not of making, the first useful steam engine. In the “Century of Scantlings and Inventions”, published in London in 1663, he describes devices showing that he had in mind the raising of water not only by forcing it from two receivers by direct steam pressure but also for some sort of reciprocating piston actuating one end of a lever, the other operating a pump. His descriptions are rather obscure and no drawings are extant so that it is difficult to say whether there were any distinctly novel features to his devices aside from the double action. While there is no direct authentic record that any of the devices he described were actually constructed, it is claimed by many that he really built and operated a steam engine containing pistons. In 1675, Sir Samuel Moreland was decorated by King Charles II, for a demonstration of “a certain powerful machine to raise water.” Though there appears to be no record of the design of this machine, the mathematical dictionary, published in 1822, credits Moreland with the first account of a steam engine, on which subject he wrote a treatise that is still preserved in the British Museum. Dr. Denys Papin, an ingenious Frenchman, invented in 1680 “a steam digester for extracting marrowy, nourishing juices from bones by enclosing them in a boiler under heavy pressure,” and finding danger from explosion, added a contrivance which is the first safety valve on record. The steam engine first became commercially successful with Thomas Savery. In 1699, Savery exhibited before the Royal Society of England (Sir Isaac Newton was President at the time), a model engine which consisted of two copper receivers alternately connected by a three-way hand-operated valve, with a boiler and a source of water supply. When the water in one receiver had been driven out by the steam, cold water was poured over its outside surface, creating a vacuum through condensation and causing it to fill again while the water in the other reservoir was being forced out. A number of machines were built on this principle and placed in actual use as mine pumps. The serious difficulty encountered in the use of Savery’s engine was the fact that the height to which it could lift water was limited by the pressure the boiler and vessels could bear. Before Savery’s engine was entirely displaced by its successor, Newcomen’s, it was considerably improved by Desaguliers, who applied the Papin safety valve to the boiler and substituted condensation by a jet within the vessel for Savery’s surface condensation. In 1690, Papin suggested that the condensation of steam should be employed to make a vacuum beneath a cylinder which had previously been raised by the expansion of steam. This was the earliest cylinder and piston steam engine and his plan took practical shape in Newcomen’s atmospheric engine. Papin’s first engine was unworkable owing to the fact that he used the same vessel for both boiler and cylinder. A small quantity of water was placed in the bottom of the vessel and heat was applied. When steam formed and raised the piston, the heat was withdrawn and the piston did work on its down stroke under pressure of the atmosphere. After hearing of Savery’s engine, Papin developed an improved form. Papin’s engine of 1705 consisted of a displacement chamber in which a floating diaphragm or piston on top of the water kept the steam and water from direct contact. The water delivered by the downward movement of the piston under pressure, to a closed tank, flowed in a continuous stream against the vanes of a water wheel. When the steam in the displacement chamber had expanded, it was exhausted to the atmosphere through a valve instead of being condensed. The engine was, in fact, a non-condensing, single action steam pump with the steam and pump cylinders in one. A curious feature of this engine was a heater placed in the diaphragm. This was a mass of heated metal for the purpose of keeping the steam dry or preventing condensation during expansion. This device might be called the first superheater. Among the various inventions attributed to Papin was a boiler with an internal fire box, the earliest record of such construction. While Papin had neglected his earlier suggestion of a steam and piston engine to work on Savery’s ideas, Thomas Newcomen, with his assistant, John Cawley, put into practical form Papin’s suggestion of 1690. Steam admitted from the boiler to a cylinder raised a piston by its expansion, assisted by a counter-weight on the other end of a beam actuated by the piston. The steam valve was then shut and the steam condensed by a jet of cold water. The piston was then forced downward by atmospheric pressure and did work on the pump. The condensed water in the cylinder was expelled through an escapement valve by the next entry of steam. This engine used steam having pressure but little, if any, above that of the atmosphere. In 1711, this engine was introduced into mines for pumping purposes. Whether its action was originally automatic or whether dependent upon the hand operation of the valves is a question of doubt. The story commonly believed is that a boy, Humphrey Potter, in 1713, whose duty it was to open and shut such valves of an engine he attended, by suitable cords and catches attached to the beam, caused the engine to automatically manipulate these valves. This device was simplified in 1718 by Henry Beighton, who suspended from the bottom, a rod called the plug-tree, which actuated the valve by tappets. By 1725, this engine was in common use in the collieries and was changed but little for a matter of sixty or seventy years. Compared with Savery’s engine, from the aspect of a pumping engine, Newcomen’s was a distinct advance, in that the pressure in the pumps was in no manner dependent upon the steam pressure. In common with Savery’s engine, the losses from the alternate heating and cooling of the steam cylinder were enormous. Though obviously this engine might have been modified to serve many purposes, its use seems to have been limited almost entirely to the pumping of water. The rivalry between Savery and Papin appears to have stimulated attention to the question of fuel saving. Dr. John Allen, in 1730, called attention to the fact that owing to the short length of time of the contact between the gases and the heating surfaces of the boiler, nearly half of the heat of the fire was lost. With a view to overcoming this loss at least partially, he used an internal furnace with a smoke flue winding through the water in the form of a worm in a still. In order that the length of passage of the gases might not act as a damper on the fire, Dr. Allen recommended the use of a pair of bellows for forcing the sluggish vapor through the flue. This is probably the first suggested use of forced draft. In forming an estimate of the quantity of fuel lost up the stack, Dr. Allen probably made the first boiler test. Toward the end of the period of use of Newcomen’s atmospheric engine, John Smeaton, who, about 1770, built and installed a number of large engines of this type, greatly improved the design in its mechanical details. The improvement in boiler and engine design of Smeaton, Newcomen and their contemporaries, were followed by those of the great engineer, James Watt, an instrument maker of Glasgow. In 1763, while repairing a model of Newcomen’s engine, he was impressed by the great waste of steam to which the alternating cooling and heating of the engine gave rise. His remedy was the maintaining of the cylinder as hot as the entering steam and with this in view he added a vessel separate from the cylinder, into which the steam should pass from the cylinder and be there condensed either by the application of cold water outside or by a jet from within. To preserve a vacuum in his condenser, he added an air pump which should serve to remove the water of condensation and air brought in with the injection water or due to leakage. As the cylinder no longer acted as a condenser, he could maintain it at a high temperature by covering it with non-conducting material and, in particular, by the use of a steam jacket. Further and with the same object in view, he covered the top of the cylinder and introduced steam above the piston to do the work previously accomplished by atmospheric pressure. After several trials with an experimental apparatus based on these ideas, Watt patented his improvements in 1769. Aside from their historical importance, Watt’s improvements, as described in his specification, are to this day a statement of the principles which guide the scientific development of the steam engine. His words are: “My method of lessening the consumption of steam, and consequently fuel, in fire engines, consists of the following principles: “First, That vessel in which the powers of steam are to be employed to work the engine, which is called the cylinder in common fire engines, and which I call the steam vessel, must, during the whole time the engine is at work, be kept as hot as the steam that enters it; first, by enclosing it in a case of wood, or any other materials that transmit heat slowly; secondly, by surrounding it with steam or other heated bodies; and, thirdly, by suffering neither water nor any other substance colder than the steam to enter or touch it during that time. “Secondly, In engines that are to be worked wholly or partially by condensation of steam, the steam is to be condensed in vessels distinct from the steam vessels or cylinders, although occasionally communicating with them; these vessels I call condensers; and, whilst the engines are working, these condensers ought at least to be kept as cold as the air in the neighborhood of the engines, by application of water or other cold bodies. “Thirdly, Whatever air or other elastic vapor is not condensed by the cold of the condenser, and may impede the working of the engine, is to be drawn out of the steam vessels or condensers by means of pumps, wrought by the engines themselves, or otherwise. “Fourthly, I intend in many cases to employ the expansive force of steam to press on the pistons, or whatever may be used instead of them, in the same manner in which the pressure of the atmosphere is now employed in common fire engines. In cases where cold water cannot be had in plenty, the engines may be wrought by this force of steam only, by discharging the steam into the air after it has done its office…. “Sixthly, I intend in some cases to apply a degree of cold not capable of reducing the steam to water, but of contracting it considerably, so that the engines shall be worked by the alternate expansion and contraction of the steam. “Lastly, Instead of using water to render the pistons and other parts of the engine air and steam tight, I employ oils, wax, resinous bodies, fat of animals, quick-silver and other metals in their fluid state.” The fifth claim was for a rotary engine, and need not be quoted here. The early efforts of Watt are typical of those of the poor inventor struggling with insufficient resources to gain recognition and it was not until he became associated with the wealthy manufacturer, Mattheu Boulton of Birmingham, that he met with the success upon which his present fame is based. In partnership with Boulton, the business of the manufacture and the sale of his engines were highly successful in spite of vigorous attacks on the validity of his patents. Though the fourth claim of Watt’s patent describes a non-condensing engine which would require high pressures, his aversion to such practice was strong. Notwithstanding his entire knowledge of the advantages through added expansion under high pressure, he continued to use pressures not above 7 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere. To overcome such pressures, his boilers were fed through a stand-pipe of sufficient height to have the column of water offset the pressure within the boiler. Watt’s attitude toward high pressure made his influence felt long after his patents had expired. In 1782, Watt patented two other features which he had invented as early as 1769. These were the double acting engine, that is, the use of steam on both sides of the piston and the use of steam expansively, that is, the shutting off of steam from the cylinder when the piston had made but a portion of its stroke, the power for the completion of the stroke being supplied by the expansive force of the steam already admitted. He further added a throttle valve for the regulation of steam admission, invented the automatic governor and the steam indicator, a mercury steam gauge and a glass water column. It has been the object of this brief history of the early developments in the use of steam to cover such developments only through the time of James Watt. The progress of the steam engine from this time through the stages of higher pressures, combining of cylinders, the application of steam vehicles and steamboats, the adding of third and fourth cylinders, to the invention of the turbine with its development and the accompanying development of the reciprocating engine to hold its place, is one long attribute to the inventive genius of man. While little is said in the biographies of Watt as to the improvement of steam boilers, all the evidence indicates that Boulton and Watt introduced the first “wagon boiler”, so called because of its shape. In 1785, Watt took out a number of patents for variations in furnace construction, many of which contain the basic principles of some of the modern smoke preventing furnaces. Until the early part of the nineteenth century, the low steam pressures used caused but little attention to be given to the form of the boiler operated in connection with the engines above described. About 1800, Richard Trevithick, in England, and Oliver Evans, in America, introduced non-condensing, and for that time, high pressure steam engines. To the initiative of Evans may be attributed the general use of high pressure steam in the United States, a feature which for many years distinguished American from European practice. The demand for light weight and economy of space following the beginning of steam navigation and the invention of the locomotive required boilers designed and constructed to withstand heavier pressures and forced the adoption of the cylindrical form of boiler. There are in use to-day many examples of every step in the development of steam boilers from the first plain cylindrical boiler to the most modern type of multi-tubular locomotive boiler, which stands as the highest type of fire-tube boiler construction. The early attempts to utilize water-tube boilers were few. A brief history of the development of the boilers, in which this principle was employed, is given in the following chapter. From this history it will be clearly indicated that the first commercially successful utilization of water tubes in a steam generator is properly attributed to George H. Babcock and Stephen Wilcox. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Babcock & Wilcox Company (2007). Steam, Its Generation and Use. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22657/pg22657-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE GENERATION AND USE OF STEAM

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