Can Space-Based Solutions Save the Planet? Scientists Think So

Climate change poses a profound challenge to our planet, requiring innovative solutions on a global scale. One of the most remarkable frontiers in this battle is the utilization of space technology. This research explores the ways space-based initiatives, including satellites, sensors, and advanced data analysis, are transforming our understanding of climate change, enhancing mitigation efforts, and driving forward a sustainable future. Beginning with an overview of the space technology types, the paper then delves into the framework of using space technology to combat climate change, including potential applications and key players in the field. Afterward, the challenges and prospects of space technology addressing climate change are discussed. Climate change poses a profound challenge to our planet, requiring innovative solutions on a global scale. One of the most remarkable frontiers in this battle is the utilization of space technology. This research explores the ways space-based initiatives, including satellites, sensors, and advanced data analysis, are transforming our understanding of climate change, enhancing mitigation efforts, and driving forward a sustainable future. Beginning with an overview of the space technology types, the paper then delves into the framework of using space technology to combat climate change, including potential applications and key players in the field. Afterward, the challenges and prospects of space technology addressing climate change are discussed. Part I: SpaceTech & Climate Change Part II: SpaceTech Applications for Climate Change Part III: Climate SpaceTech Landscape Part IV: Challenges & Prospects Part I: SpaceTech & Climate Change Part I: SpaceTech & Climate Change Part II: SpaceTech Applications for Climate Change Part II: SpaceTech Applications for Climate Change Part III: Climate SpaceTech Landscape Part III: Climate SpaceTech Landscape Part IV: Challenges & Prospects Part IV: Challenges & Prospects Part I: SpaceTech & Climate Change Space technology comprises a diverse range of technologies and systems designed for the exploration, utilization, and comprehension of the outer space environment. This includes spacecraft, satellites, rockets, instruments, and equipment used for purposes like communication, Earth observation, research, and space exploration missions. Space technology plays a crucial role in advancing our knowledge of the universe and supporting various applications on Earth. Space technology encompasses a wide range of hardware, instruments, and systems: Spacecraft: These are vehicles designed for travel and operation in outer space. They come in various types, including crewed spacecraft (like the International Space Station), robotic spacecraft (such as Mars rovers), and space probes (like Voyager and New Horizons) used for exploring other celestial bodies. Satellites: These are artificial objects placed in orbit around Earth or other celestial bodies. Satellites serve many purposes, such as communication (communication satellites), Earth observation (remote sensing satellites), navigation (GPS satellites), and scientific research (telescopes and observatories). Rockets: Rockets are essential for launching payloads, including spacecraft and satellites, into space. They work on the principle of Newton’s third law of motion, expelling propellant at high speed to generate thrust and lift the payload into orbit or on interplanetary trajectories. Instruments and Sensors: Space technology relies on advanced instruments and sensors to collect data from space or observe Earth. Examples include telescopes, spectrometers, cameras, and sensors for measuring various physical parameters. Propulsion Systems: Spacecraft use different propulsion systems for maneuvering and changing orbits. Chemical rockets, ion drives, and solar sails are some examples of propulsion technologies used in space exploration. Communication Systems: Space technology includes communication systems that enable data transmission between spacecraft, satellites, and ground stations. This facilitates data collection, command and control, and communication between astronauts and mission control. Space Stations: Space technology has enabled the construction and operation of space stations like the International Space Station (ISS). These serve as laboratories for scientific research and platforms for international cooperation in space. Space Telescopes: Space-based telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope provide clear and uninterrupted views of the universe, helping scientists observe distant galaxies, stars, and planets with unprecedented precision. Spacecraft: These are vehicles designed for travel and operation in outer space. They come in various types, including crewed spacecraft (like the International Space Station), robotic spacecraft (such as Mars rovers), and space probes (like Voyager and New Horizons) used for exploring other celestial bodies. Spacecraft: International Space Station Mars rovers Voyager New Horizons Satellites: These are artificial objects placed in orbit around Earth or other celestial bodies. Satellites serve many purposes, such as communication (communication satellites), Earth observation (remote sensing satellites), navigation (GPS satellites), and scientific research (telescopes and observatories). Satellites: Rockets: Rockets are essential for launching payloads, including spacecraft and satellites, into space. They work on the principle of Newton’s third law of motion, expelling propellant at high speed to generate thrust and lift the payload into orbit or on interplanetary trajectories. Rockets: Newton’s third law of motion Instruments and Sensors: Space technology relies on advanced instruments and sensors to collect data from space or observe Earth. Examples include telescopes, spectrometers, cameras, and sensors for measuring various physical parameters. Instruments and Sensors: Propulsion Systems: Spacecraft use different propulsion systems for maneuvering and changing orbits. Chemical rockets, ion drives, and solar sails are some examples of propulsion technologies used in space exploration. Propulsion Systems: Communication Systems: Space technology includes communication systems that enable data transmission between spacecraft, satellites, and ground stations. This facilitates data collection, command and control, and communication between astronauts and mission control. Communication Systems: Space Stations: Space technology has enabled the construction and operation of space stations like the International Space Station (ISS). These serve as laboratories for scientific research and platforms for international cooperation in space. Space Stations: International Space Station (ISS) Space Telescopes: Space-based telescopes like the Hubble Space Telescope provide clear and uninterrupted views of the universe, helping scientists observe distant galaxies, stars, and planets with unprecedented precision. Space Telescopes: Hubble Space Telescope SpaceTech 2.0 Satellites and other space technologies could be used to help mitigate the effects of climate change, as well as protect both animals and communities. could be used Space 2.0 technologies are the successors of Space 1.0 (which is sometimes characterized as the first space age, which lasted approximately from 1957 until 2000). Space 1.0 resulted in essential technologies such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) that were eventually adopted for wider commercial use. Private space companies are now visible participants in the new space age, alongside traditional players such as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the European Space Agency (ESA). Global Positioning System (GPS) National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) European Space Agency (ESA) Space-related tech has been changing how we’ve been tackling climate change, from monitoring the thickness of sea ice to measuring gases in the atmosphere. Space technology 2.0 represents the next phase in the evolution of space-related technologies, marking advancements, innovation, and transformation in our capabilities for space exploration and utilization. Today, SpaceTech entails a constellation of multiple innovations: Artificial intelligence (AI), advanced satellite tech, and location intelligence (LI). The convergence between AI, LI, and satellites facilitates the transformation of space data into meaningful applications and groundbreaking, measurable, and sustainable solutions to global challenges. Space 2.0 systems — along with other innovations including AI, 5G, IoT, and robotics — offer further potential for supporting the fight against climate change. a constellation of multiple innovations: location intelligence convergence between AI, LI, and satellites Space 2.0 systems Information and communication technologies could play a fundamental role in meeting the Paris Agreement’s target of limiting global warming to 1.5C, according to a joint report “Frontier Technologies to protect the environment and tackle climate change” from the International Telecommunication Union and the United Nations. The report says it is vital that satellite measurements continue, and get more advanced over time so that changes to geological features such as ice sheets can be accurately monitored. “Frontier Technologies to protect the environment and tackle climate change International Telecommunication Union United Nations Innovative technologies help to mitigate climate change. For instance, to maximize wind turbine energy production, French firm Leosphere created an instrument using lidar tech — also used on self-driving vehicles — that measures wind speed and direction from the ground up to 200 meters. The ESA uses similar tech on its Aeolus satellite to access global observations of wind profiles from space. German company ESCUBE is using mini ceramic gas sensors — originally designed to measure oxygen levels around spacecraft re-entry vehicles — to optimize industrial heating systems, minimize harmful exhaust gases, and reduce fuel consumption by 10–15%. Leosphere ESA Aeolus satellite ESCUBE Artificial Intelligence (AI) Artificial Intelligence (AI) AI plays a growing and valuable role in space technology and its applications related to climate change: Data Analysis and Fusion: AI algorithms are used to analyze and fuse data from various Earth-observing satellites, ground-based sensors, and climate models. This integration provides a more comprehensive view of climate variables and trends. Climate Data Processing: AI helps process vast amounts of climate data quickly and accurately. This includes data related to temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise, and greenhouse gas concentrations. Pattern Recognition: AI can identify complex patterns and correlations in climate data that might be challenging for human analysts to discern. This enables more precise climate modeling and trend analysis. Extreme Weather Prediction: Machine learning models can improve the accuracy of extreme weather event predictions, such as hurricanes and typhoons. These predictions are essential for climate adaptation and disaster management. Climate Modeling: AI is used to enhance climate models by incorporating machine learning techniques. This can lead to more accurate simulations of climate scenarios and their impacts. Carbon Sequestration: AI is applied to optimize the management of forests and other ecosystems for carbon sequestration, helping in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Climate Risk Assessment: AI-driven risk assessment models evaluate the potential consequences of climate change on infrastructure, agriculture, and other sectors, aiding in adaptation planning. Renewable Energy Optimization: AI algorithms are used to optimize the operation of renewable energy systems, such as wind and solar farms, to maximize energy production and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Data Analysis and Fusion: AI algorithms are used to analyze and fuse data from various Earth-observing satellites, ground-based sensors, and climate models. This integration provides a more comprehensive view of climate variables and trends. Data Analysis and Fusion: Climate Data Processing: AI helps process vast amounts of climate data quickly and accurately. This includes data related to temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise, and greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate Data Processing: Pattern Recognition: AI can identify complex patterns and correlations in climate data that might be challenging for human analysts to discern. This enables more precise climate modeling and trend analysis. Pattern Recognition: Extreme Weather Prediction: Machine learning models can improve the accuracy of extreme weather event predictions, such as hurricanes and typhoons. These predictions are essential for climate adaptation and disaster management. Extreme Weather Prediction: Climate Modeling: AI is used to enhance climate models by incorporating machine learning techniques. This can lead to more accurate simulations of climate scenarios and their impacts. Climate Modeling: Carbon Sequestration: AI is applied to optimize the management of forests and other ecosystems for carbon sequestration, helping in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon Sequestration: Climate Risk Assessment: AI-driven risk assessment models evaluate the potential consequences of climate change on infrastructure, agriculture, and other sectors, aiding in adaptation planning. Climate Risk Assessment: Renewable Energy Optimization: AI algorithms are used to optimize the operation of renewable energy systems, such as wind and solar farms, to maximize energy production and reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Renewable Energy Optimization: AI’s ability to process and analyze large datasets, identify complex patterns, and optimize processes makes it a powerful tool for addressing the challenges posed by climate change. Integrating AI into space technology and climate science enhances our understanding of climate systems and supports efforts to mitigate and adapt to the changing climate. Internet of Things (IoT) Internet of Things (IoT) IoT is increasingly being integrated into space technology to enhance our understanding of climate change and improve our ability to monitor, mitigate, and adapt to its effects: Environmental Sensing: IoT devices deployed in space, on satellites, or on Earth can collect real-time data on various climate-related parameters, such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, and greenhouse gas concentrations. These sensors help monitor changes in the Earth’s environment. Ocean Monitoring: IoT sensors attached to buoys, floats, or autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are used to measure ocean temperature, salinity, and currents. This data is crucial for understanding ocean circulation patterns and their role in climate regulation. Weather Balloons: IoT-equipped weather balloons are launched into the atmosphere to collect atmospheric data at different altitudes. This data is used to improve weather forecasting and climate modeling. Remote Sensing: IoT technology is integrated into remote sensing platforms, such as drones and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), for collecting high-resolution climate data over specific regions or ecosystems. Data Transmission: IoT-enabled communication systems on satellites and ground stations facilitate the efficient transmission of climate data from space-based sensors to Earth for analysis and decision-making. Energy Efficiency: IoT is used in space technology to optimize the energy efficiency of spacecraft and satellite operations. This reduces the carbon footprint associated with space missions. Space-Based IoT Networks: Constellations of small satellites equipped with IoT sensors can be deployed in low Earth orbit to provide continuous global coverage for climate monitoring and data collection. Disaster Management: IoT devices in space technology are used to assess and respond to climate-related disasters, such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires, by providing real-time data for disaster management and relief efforts. Carbon Cycle Monitoring: IoT sensors can be deployed in forests and other ecosystems to measure carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes and help track the carbon cycle. This information is valuable for understanding carbon sequestration and emissions. Climate Data Integration: IoT data is integrated with data from other sources, including Earth observation satellites and ground-based sensors, to create a comprehensive picture of climate conditions and trends. Climate Resilience: IoT technology aids in the development of climate-resilient infrastructure and early warning systems to mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events and climate change. Data Fusion: IoT-generated data is fused with other climate-related datasets to improve climate models, climate predictions, and climate adaptation strategies. Environmental Sensing: IoT devices deployed in space, on satellites, or on Earth can collect real-time data on various climate-related parameters, such as temperature, humidity, air pressure, and greenhouse gas concentrations. These sensors help monitor changes in the Earth’s environment. Environmental Sensing: Ocean Monitoring: IoT sensors attached to buoys, floats, or autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) are used to measure ocean temperature, salinity, and currents. This data is crucial for understanding ocean circulation patterns and their role in climate regulation. Ocean Monitoring: Weather Balloons: IoT-equipped weather balloons are launched into the atmosphere to collect atmospheric data at different altitudes. This data is used to improve weather forecasting and climate modeling. Weather Balloons: Remote Sensing: IoT technology is integrated into remote sensing platforms, such as drones and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), for collecting high-resolution climate data over specific regions or ecosystems. Remote Sensing: Data Transmission: IoT-enabled communication systems on satellites and ground stations facilitate the efficient transmission of climate data from space-based sensors to Earth for analysis and decision-making. Data Transmission: Energy Efficiency: IoT is used in space technology to optimize the energy efficiency of spacecraft and satellite operations. This reduces the carbon footprint associated with space missions. Energy Efficiency: Space-Based IoT Networks: Constellations of small satellites equipped with IoT sensors can be deployed in low Earth orbit to provide continuous global coverage for climate monitoring and data collection. Space-Based IoT Networks: Disaster Management: IoT devices in space technology are used to assess and respond to climate-related disasters, such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires, by providing real-time data for disaster management and relief efforts. Disaster Management: Carbon Cycle Monitoring: IoT sensors can be deployed in forests and other ecosystems to measure carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes and help track the carbon cycle. This information is valuable for understanding carbon sequestration and emissions. Carbon Cycle Monitoring: Climate Data Integration: IoT data is integrated with data from other sources, including Earth observation satellites and ground-based sensors, to create a comprehensive picture of climate conditions and trends. Climate Data Integration: Climate Resilience: IoT technology aids in the development of climate-resilient infrastructure and early warning systems to mitigate the impacts of extreme weather events and climate change. Climate Resilience: Data Fusion: IoT-generated data is fused with other climate-related datasets to improve climate models, climate predictions, and climate adaptation strategies. Data Fusion: NASA created a Lab dedicated to the study of IoT and space-related applications. The lab includes four teams to research multiple aspects of IoT: security, protocols and monitoring, data analytics, and end-user experience. created a Lab dedicated to the study of IoT By integrating IoT technology into space-based climate monitoring and research, scientists and policymakers gain access to a wealth of real-time data and insights that can enhance our understanding of climate change and support efforts to address its challenges. Location Intelligence (LI) Location Intelligence (LI) LI plays a significant role in space technology, particularly in satellite-based applications and Earth observation. LI solutions overlay variables (or data points) onto maps to generate insights. LI builds on geographical information systems (GIS) tools, and its capabilities go beyond the analysis of geospatial or geographic information. It has the ability to visualize spatial data and to identify and analyze information about the physical, chemical, and biological systems of the planet that can be detected via remote-sensing technologies. The dependence on Earth observation data collected from geospatial information is huge, especially when it comes to SDGs, as it relates people to their location and helps monitor progress at a specific region, district, state, or local level. Google Maps is an example of a consumer-facing LI solution used in conjunction with satellite tech scanning the globe and AI that quickly analyses, identifies, and extrapolates patterns in vast quantities of data. geographical information systems (GIS) The dependence on Earth observation data collected from geospatial information is huge Google Maps Geospatial Data Collection: Satellites equipped with remote sensing instruments capture geospatial data, including high-resolution images, terrain elevation models, and spectral data. This data provides precise location information about the Earth’s surface. Georeferencing: Georeferencing is the process of assigning geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) to data points or pixels in satellite imagery. This ensures that the data accurately represents locations on Earth’s surface. Navigation and Positioning: GPS is a space-based technology that provides highly accurate location and timing information to users on Earth. GPS is essential for satellite navigation, precision agriculture, and many other applications. Geospatial Analysis: Space technology and location intelligence are used together to perform geospatial analysis. This includes tasks like land cover classification, land use planning, disaster risk assessment, and urban planning. Earth Observation for Location-Based Services: Earth observation satellites provide data for location-based services (LBS) like GPS navigation, weather forecasting, and location-based marketing. These services rely on accurate geospatial data. Disaster Monitoring and Response: During natural disasters, space-based technology and location intelligence are crucial for mapping affected areas, identifying hazards, and coordinating disaster response efforts. Agriculture and Resource Management: Location intelligence in space technology aids in precision agriculture by providing data on soil moisture, vegetation health, and crop yield predictions. This optimizes resource allocation and reduces environmental impacts. Climate Change Monitoring: Geospatial data collected by satellites is essential for monitoring climate change impacts, such as sea-level rise, glacial retreat, and changes in land cover. These changes have location-specific effects. Environmental Conservation: Location intelligence helps monitor and protect natural ecosystems by tracking deforestation, wildlife habitats, and illegal activities like poaching or logging. Infrastructure Planning: Space technology and location intelligence support infrastructure planning by assessing factors like transportation routes, urban growth, and the suitability of sites for construction projects. Emergency Services and Public Safety: Location intelligence is used in emergency response and public safety applications, enabling accurate location tracking of emergency calls and incidents. Mapping and Cartography: Space technology contributes to creating accurate maps and cartographic products used for navigation, land management, and GIS. Geospatial Data Collection: Satellites equipped with remote sensing instruments capture geospatial data, including high-resolution images, terrain elevation models, and spectral data. This data provides precise location information about the Earth’s surface. Geospatial Data Collection: Georeferencing: Georeferencing is the process of assigning geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude) to data points or pixels in satellite imagery. This ensures that the data accurately represents locations on Earth’s surface. Georeferencing: Navigation and Positioning: GPS is a space-based technology that provides highly accurate location and timing information to users on Earth. GPS is essential for satellite navigation, precision agriculture, and many other applications. Navigation and Positioning: Geospatial Analysis: Space technology and location intelligence are used together to perform geospatial analysis. This includes tasks like land cover classification, land use planning, disaster risk assessment, and urban planning. Geospatial Analysis: Earth Observation for Location-Based Services: Earth observation satellites provide data for location-based services (LBS) like GPS navigation, weather forecasting, and location-based marketing. These services rely on accurate geospatial data. Earth Observation for Location-Based Services: Disaster Monitoring and Response: During natural disasters, space-based technology and location intelligence are crucial for mapping affected areas, identifying hazards, and coordinating disaster response efforts. Disaster Monitoring and Response: Agriculture and Resource Management: Location intelligence in space technology aids in precision agriculture by providing data on soil moisture, vegetation health, and crop yield predictions. This optimizes resource allocation and reduces environmental impacts. Agriculture and Resource Management: Climate Change Monitoring: Geospatial data collected by satellites is essential for monitoring climate change impacts, such as sea-level rise, glacial retreat, and changes in land cover. These changes have location-specific effects. Climate Change Monitoring: Environmental Conservation: Location intelligence helps monitor and protect natural ecosystems by tracking deforestation, wildlife habitats, and illegal activities like poaching or logging. Environmental Conservation: Infrastructure Planning: Space technology and location intelligence support infrastructure planning by assessing factors like transportation routes, urban growth, and the suitability of sites for construction projects. Infrastructure Planning: Emergency Services and Public Safety: Location intelligence is used in emergency response and public safety applications, enabling accurate location tracking of emergency calls and incidents. Emergency Services and Public Safety: Mapping and Cartography: Space technology contributes to creating accurate maps and cartographic products used for navigation, land management, and GIS. Mapping and Cartography: GIS Location intelligence is an integral part of space technology, enabling precise data collection, analysis, and applications that benefit various sectors, from agriculture and environmental conservation to emergency response and infrastructure planning. It enhances our understanding of Earth’s dynamics and helps address a wide range of challenges and opportunities. Over the past two decades, space technologies have greatly expanded our understanding of the effects climate change is having on our planet. Innovative space technologies have led to a number of inventions that benefit the environment and save energy. Satellite-based systems are reducing vehicles’ carbon dioxide emissions, remote-sensing technology is making wind turbines more efficient, and information from weather satellites is helping solar cells to produce more energy. Space tech provides data that enables the monitoring and modeling of the Earth’s climate system, helping us to make predictions. Satellite data from Earth Observation Satellites (EOS), Space 2.0, Frontier Technologies, and more are providing information on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the environmental changes from deforestation, melting ice, carbon dioxide levels, and the rise of sea levels to name just a few areas. expanded our understanding Earth Observation Satellites (EOS) Space 2.0 Cutting-Edge Space Technology for Climate Examples of how advanced space technology is being applied to climate-related efforts: Advanced Earth Observation Satellites Advanced Earth Observation Satellites Satellites observing Earth provide a clear picture of changes across the entire planet. They provide regular, accurate measurements, including of areas that are difficult to reach such as the polar regions. The next generation of Earth-observing satellites, such as the ESA’s Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich, and Sentinel-7, are equipped with advanced instruments for monitoring sea-level rise, greenhouse gas concentrations, and other climate-related parameters with increased precision and accuracy. ESA Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich Sentinel-7 Earth observation satellites have unique abilities and benefits: unique abilities and benefits Wide area observation capability: a single instrument on a polar-orbiting satellite can observe the entire Earth on a daily basis, while instruments on geostationary satellites continuously monitor the diurnal cycle of the disk of Earth below them. Together the polar and geostationary environmental satellites maintain a constant watch on the entire globe. Unintrusive observations allow the collection of data to take place without compromising national sovereignty. Uniformity of observations across borders. Rapid measurement capability: images of remote and inhospitable areas can be downloaded within a few hours of capture, important for development of climate hazard early warning systems or weather forecasting. Continuity: missions are designed to carry sensors carried by earlier missions, to assist with long time series of data suitable for climate studies. Wide area observation capability: a single instrument on a polar-orbiting satellite can observe the entire Earth on a daily basis, while instruments on geostationary satellites continuously monitor the diurnal cycle of the disk of Earth below them. Together the polar and geostationary environmental satellites maintain a constant watch on the entire globe. Unintrusive observations allow the collection of data to take place without compromising national sovereignty. Uniformity of observations across borders. Rapid measurement capability: images of remote and inhospitable areas can be downloaded within a few hours of capture, important for development of climate hazard early warning systems or weather forecasting. Continuity: missions are designed to carry sensors carried by earlier missions, to assist with long time series of data suitable for climate studies. Hyperspectral Imaging Hyperspectral Imaging Hyperspectral imaging sensors on satellites can capture detailed information about Earth’s surface and atmosphere. This technology is used to monitor vegetation health, land use changes, and atmospheric composition, contributing to climate research. Hyperspectral imaging sensors Hyperspectral imaging takes a spectrum of light and divides the light into hundreds of narrow spectral bands. Hyperspectral imaging EO-1 (NASA): In 2000, NASA launched the EO-1 satellite which carried the hyperspectral sensor “Hyperion”. Hyperion produced 30-meter resolution images in 242 spectral bands. Hyperion really kicked off the start of hyperspectral imaging from space. If you want to test out Hyperion imagery for yourself, the data is available for free on the USGS Earth Explorer. EO-1 (NASA): In 2000, NASA launched the EO-1 satellite which carried the hyperspectral sensor “Hyperion”. Hyperion produced 30-meter resolution images in 242 spectral bands. Hyperion really kicked off the start of hyperspectral imaging from space. If you want to test out Hyperion imagery for yourself, the data is available for free on the USGS Earth Explorer. EO-1 (NASA) PROBA-1 (ESA): Project for Onboard Autonomy (PROBA-1) was launched by ESA in 2001. It carried CHRIS (Compact High-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) for medium-resolution hyperspectral imaging. Its hyperspectral mode produced 63 bands at 34m GSD. But it could also be reconfigured to 150 bands at a pixel resolution. PROBA-1 (ESA): Project for Onboard Autonomy (PROBA-1) was launched by ESA in 2001. It carried CHRIS (Compact High-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer) for medium-resolution hyperspectral imaging. Its hyperspectral mode produced 63 bands at 34m GSD. But it could also be reconfigured to 150 bands at a pixel resolution. PROBA-1 (ESA): PROBA-1 PRISMA (Italy): PRISMA was launched in 2019 as a medium-resolution hyperspectral satellite. It’s the first of its kind in Italy and will assist in crop classification, resource management, and environmental monitoring. PRISMA (PRecursore IperSpettrale Della Missione Applicativa) produces 250 bands with 30m GSD. PRISMA (Italy): PRISMA was launched in 2019 as a medium-resolution hyperspectral satellite. It’s the first of its kind in Italy and will assist in crop classification, resource management, and environmental monitoring. PRISMA (PRecursore IperSpettrale Della Missione Applicativa) produces 250 bands with 30m GSD. PRISMA (Italy): PRISMA was launched in 2019 as a medium-resolution hyperspectral satellite. It’s the first of its kind in Italy and will assist in crop classification, resource management, and environmental monitoring. PRISMA (PRecursore IperSpettrale Della Missione Applicativa) produces 250 bands with 30m GSD. PRISMA (Italy): PRISMA (PRecursore IperSpettrale Della Missione Applicativa) EnMap (Germany): Germany plans to launch the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMap) in 2020. This hyperspectral satellite will consist of 228 bands with 30m GSD. HISUI (Japan): The Hyperspectral and Multispectral Imager (HISUI) will be onboard ALOS-3. This Japanese hyperspectral sensor will have 185 bands with 30m GSD. EnMap (Germany): Germany plans to launch the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMap) in 2020. This hyperspectral satellite will consist of 228 bands with 30m GSD. EnMap (Germany): Germany plans to launch the Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMap) in 2020. This hyperspectral satellite will consist of 228 bands with 30m GSD. EnMap (Germany): Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMap) HISUI (Japan): The Hyperspectral and Multispectral Imager (HISUI) will be onboard ALOS-3. This Japanese hyperspectral sensor will have 185 bands with 30m GSD. HISUI (Japan): The Hyperspectral and Multispectral Imager (HISUI) will be onboard ALOS-3. This Japanese hyperspectral sensor will have 185 bands with 30m GSD. HISUI (Japan): The Hyperspectral and Multispectral Imager (HISUI) HyspIRI (United States): The estimated launch for Hyperspectral Infrared Imager (HyspIRI) is 2024. It will be equipped with the VSWIR imaging spectrometer with 60m GSD. HyspIRI (United States): The estimated launch for Hyperspectral Infrared Imager (HyspIRI) is 2024. It will be equipped with the VSWIR imaging spectrometer with 60m GSD. HyspIRI HyspIRI (United States): CubeSats for Climate Research CubeSats for Climate Research Miniaturized satellites, like CubeSats, are being used for climate research, providing cost-effective solutions for collecting data on various climate variables, including temperature, greenhouse gases, and ocean currents. These miniature satellites offer a range of advantages, from low-cost deployment to improved access to data. CubeSats range of advantages One of the main benefits of CubeSats is their affordability: As they are relatively small and simpler in design compared to larger satellites, CubeSats require fewer resources to build and launch, making them an attractive option for budget-conscious organizations. Another advantage of using CubeSats is the increased access to data: CubeSats are able to capture more data than larger satellites, which allows them to provide more comprehensive coverage of the area being observed. CubeSats are also more reliable than traditional satellites: Due to their small size, CubeSats are less susceptible to damage from external factors such as space debris and cosmic radiation. NASA’s CubeSat Launch Initiative has launched over 150 CubeSats. For example, ELaNa 45 consists of five small satellites, known as CubeSats, which fly as auxiliary payloads on NASA’s SpaceX 25th Commercial Resupply Services (CRS-25) mission to the International Space Station. ELaNa missions are managed by NASA’s Launch Services Program (LSP), based at the agency’s Florida spaceport. Upcoming ELaNa Launches: ELaNa 57: One CubeSat will launch on SpaceX’s Tranporter-10: M3 (3U) Missouri University of Science and Technology; ELaNa 43: Ten CubeSats to launch on a demonstration mission. CubeSat Launch Initiative ELaNa 45 CubeSats SpaceX 25th Commercial Resupply Services (CRS-25) mission NASA’s Launch Services Program (LSP) CLICK A is a CubeSat project run out of Ames and includes collaboration with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the University of Florida. Other CubeSats flying aboard the ELaNa 45 mission include CapSat-1 from The Weiss School in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida; JAGSAT from the University of South Alabama; BeaverCube from MIT; and Drag Deorbit Device (D3), from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University. CLICK A is the first of two missions called CubeSat Laser Infrared CrosslinK (CLICK). The goal is to demonstrate technology to advance communications between small spacecraft, as well as the capability to gauge their relative distance and location. CLICK A will test elements of optical — or laser — communication, using pointing technology with one spacecraft. That will pave the way for CLICK B and C, which will use two CubeSats to communicate with each other. Optical communication increases the available data rate between CubeSats, which enables more data to be delivered. That goes to the heart of CLICK’s objective. CLICK A Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) University of Florida CapSat-1 JAGSAT BeaverCube Drag Deorbit Device CubeSat Laser Infrared CrosslinK (CLICK). AI and Machine Learning AI and Machine Learning AI and machine learning (ML) algorithms are applied to analyze vast amounts of climate data from space-based sensors. They help identify patterns, trends, and anomalies in climate data, improving our understanding of climate change. A flying laboratory, ESA’s OPS-SAT is the first of its kind, with the sole purpose of testing and validating new techniques in mission control and onboard satellite systems. OPS-SAT is devoted to demonstrating drastically improved mission control capabilities, that will arise when satellites can fly more powerful on-board computers. The satellite is only 30cm high, but it contains an experimental computer ten times more powerful than any current ESA spacecraft. The OPS-SAT projects using AI included running deep learning algorithms to improve the spacecraft’s image quality, unlocking new methods to employ deep learning on the spacecraft, detecting and tracking features on Earth’s surface, using an AI technique called ‘reinforcement learning’ to better control the orientation of the spacecraft, and detecting forests using deep learning. OPS-SAT OPS-SAT running deep learning algorithms to improve the spacecraft’s image quality unlocking new methods to employ deep learning on the spacecraft detecting and tracking features on Earth’s surface better control the orientation of the spacecraft detecting forests using deep learning There are also projects working on detecting and tracking marine litter using satellites. Several of these made use of AI, for example by training AI models to detect certain types of plastic, using AI to identify floating plastic particles, and combining AI with drones to automatically detect submerged plastic litter. detecting and tracking marine litter using satellites training AI models to detect certain types of plastic using AI to identify floating plastic particles combining AI with drones to automatically detect submerged plastic litter ESA has also gained ample experience using AI to plow through enormous amounts of data to extract meaningful information. This technique has already been implemented in applications, including monitoring climate change. monitoring climate change Laser-Based Instruments Laser-Based Instruments Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) is a remote sensing method used to examine the surface of the Earth, instruments on satellites provide detailed 3D information about the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. They are used for monitoring ice sheets, forests, and aerosols, among other applications. Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) A lidar instrument principally consists of a laser, a scanner, and a specialized GPS receiver. Airplanes and helicopters are the most commonly used platforms for acquiring lidar data over broad areas. Two types of lidar are topographic and bathymetric. Topographic lidar typically uses a near-infrared laser to map the land, while bathymetric lidar uses water-penetrating green light to also measure seafloor and riverbed elevations. GPS topographic and bathymetric Space-Based Climate Observatories Space-Based Climate Observatories Missions like the NASA-ESA Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) focus on collecting precise climate data to improve our understanding of the Earth’s energy balance and long-term climate trends. CLARREO Pathfinder (CPF) data will do this by taking highly accurate measurements of sunlight reflected by the Earth and the Moon. These measurements will be five to ten times more accurate than those from existing sensors. CPF will have the unique ability to maintain its high accuracy throughout its lifetime. NASA-ESA Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory (CLARREO) CLARREO Pathfinder (CPF) In 2023, the CLARREO PF team has been conducting comprehensive characterization tests on the Hyperspectral Imager for Climate Science (HySICS) instrument to ensure that it can meet its rigorous and unprecedented accuracy goal. The HySICS instrument is an imaging spectrometer and is the heart of the CPF payload as the core subsystem enabling the high-accuracy measurements of reflected sunlight. Following successful completion, an independent calibration effort will be conducted with the instrument before it’s ready for the start of payload integration in late 2023. Hyperspectral Imager for Climate Science (HySICS) Microwave Radiometry Microwave Radiometry Microwave radiometers on satellites are used to measure sea surface temperatures and atmospheric moisture content, providing essential data for climate modeling and weather forecasting. Microwave radiometers use a similar measurement principle to infrared radiometers, having several spectral channels to provide the information to correct for extraneous effects, and two-point calibration procedures to ensure the accuracy of the measurements. Microwave radiometers infrared radiometers The Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR) is currently operating as AMSR-2 on JAXA’s GCOM-W1 spacecraft, launched May 18, 2012. AMSR-2 measures weak microwave emission from the surface and the atmosphere of the Earth. From about 700 km above the Earth, AMSR-2 provides highly accurate measurements of the intensity of microwave emission and scattering. The antenna of AMSR-2 rotates once per 1.5 seconds and obtains data over a 1450 km swath. This enables AMSR-2 to acquire a set of daytime and nighttime data with more than 99% coverage of the Earth every 2 days. The Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer (AMSR) JAXA’s GCOM-W1 AMSR-2 rotates once per 1.5 seconds The AMSR instruments are dual-polarized, conical scanning, passive microwave radiometers. Each is placed in a near-polar orbit which allows for up to twice daily sampling of a given Earth location. A key feature of these AMSR instruments is the ability to see through clouds, thereby providing an uninterrupted view of the ocean measurements. NASA has processed data from all of these instruments to provide the typical Remote Sensing System (RSS) microwave radiometer ocean measurement product suite consisting of: Sea Surface Temperature, Surface Wind Speeds (low and medium frequency), Atmospheric Water Vapor, Cloud Liquid Water, and Rain Rate. Remote Sensing System (RSS) Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) Space-Based Solar Power (SBSP) Concepts for space-based solar power generation involve capturing solar energy in space and transmitting it to Earth, potentially reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change. SBSP is based on existing technological principles and known physics, with no new breakthroughs required. with no new breakthroughs required Space-based solar power essentially consists of three elements: Collecting solar energy in space with reflectors or inflatable mirrors onto solar cells or heaters for thermal systems; Wireless power transmission to Earth via microwave or laser; Receiving power on Earth via a rectenna, a microwave antenna. Collecting solar energy in space with reflectors or inflatable mirrors onto solar cells or heaters for thermal systems; Wireless power transmission to Earth via microwave or laser; Receiving power on Earth via a rectenna, a microwave antenna. ESA has kicked off a preparatory initiative, called SOLARIS. The goal of SOLARIS is to prepare the ground for a possible decision in 2025 on a full development program by establishing the technical, political, and programmatic viability of SBSP for terrestrial clean energy needs. The SOLARIS Activity Plan outlines the potential activities currently foreseen to be required during the period 2023–2025 to achieve the SOLARIS objectives. ESA SOLARIS SOLARIS Activity Plan https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ScTbb-43A4&embedable=true https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ScTbb-43A4&embedable=true Another example is Caltech Space Solar Power Project. Caltech’s space solar power prototype was launched into orbit in January 2023 has demonstrated its ability to wirelessly transmit power in space and to beam detectable power to Earth. MAPLE, short for Microwave Array for Power-transfer Low-orbit Experiment and one of the three key experiments within SSPD-1, consists of an array of flexible lightweight microwave power transmitters driven by custom electronic chips that were built using low-cost silicon technologies. It uses an array of transmitters to beam the energy to desired locations. For SSPP to be feasible, energy transmission arrays will need to be lightweight to minimize the amount of fuel needed to send them to space, flexible so they can fold up into a package that can be transported in a rocket, and a low-cost technology overall. Caltech Space Solar Power Project MAPLE Microwave Array for Power-transfer Low-orbit Experiment SSPD-1 Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) GNSS is a general term describing any satellite constellation that provides positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) services on a global or regional basis. GNSS-based climate research involves using signals from navigation satellite systems like GPS to monitor changes in the Earth’s atmosphere and water vapor content. GNSS While GPS is the most prevalent GNSS, other nations are fielding, or have fielded, their own systems to provide complementary, independent PNT capability. Examples of GNSS include Europe’s Galileo, the USA’s NAVSTAR GPS, Russia’s Global’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema (GLONASS), and China’s BeiDou Navigation Satellite System. Galileo GLONASS BeiDou Navigation Satellite System. Space-Based Climate Impact Assessment Space-Based Climate Impact Assessment Satellites and space technology are used to assess the impacts of climate change on Earth’s ecosystems, including tracking shifts in vegetation, ocean acidification, and glacial retreat. Technical challenges faced by current space-based GHG monitoring operations include measurement inconsistencies linked to the presence of aerosols in the atmosphere. Another demand involves the need to obtain frequently repeated GHG measurements at a reasonable cost. space-based GHG monitoring operations The EU’s SCARBO project is addressing these and other challenges linked to the monitoring of anthropogenic GHGs. For instance, the project team is undertaking the detailed design, analysis, and modeling of a novel, miniaturized, GHG-monitoring, spectro-imaging instrument, known as ‘NanoCarb’. The SCARBO concept involves mounting the NanoCarb instrument on a constellation of small satellites, together with an ultra-compact aerosol sensor. The small satellite constellation would provide complementary measurements to institutional GHG monitoring missions, therefore the SCARBO team is exploring a deployment strategy to ensure the cross-calibration of SCARBO data with the future Copernicus CO2M mission. SCARBO project ‘NanoCarb Copernicus CO2M mission CO2M will provide a unique and independent source of information to assess the effectiveness of these policy measures and to track their impact on decarbonization. Nations throughout the world will be able to assess and compare with transparency how they are meeting their targets. The two CO2M satellites will each carry a near-infrared and shortwave-infrared spectrometer to measure atmospheric carbon dioxide at high spatial resolution. These measurements will be used by the new CO2M Monitoring and Verification Support Capacity, which the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts is developing, and which will eventually reduce uncertainties in estimates of emissions of carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuel at local, national and regional scales. CO2M European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts The two CO2M satellites are scheduled to be launched sequentially in 2026 and are qualified to operate as a constellation for 7.5 years in orbit, with fuel to extend their life to 12 years. Why is SpaceTech well-suited for combating climate change? Space technology is well-suited to combat climate change for several compelling reasons: Global Coverage: Satellites equipped with Earth-observing sensors provide a global perspective, allowing for the monitoring of climate-related parameters across the entire planet. This comprehensive coverage ensures that even remote and inaccessible areas are included in climate assessments. Continuous Monitoring: Space-based instruments operate 24/7 and can collect data continuously, providing a wealth of information on climate variables over extended periods. This data is crucial for tracking long-term climate trends and changes. Large-Scale Data Collection: Space technology enables the collection of vast amounts of data, including temperature, sea-level rise, greenhouse gas concentrations, and more. This data forms the basis for climate models and predictions. Remote Sensing: Space technology allows for remote sensing of Earth’s systems, including the atmosphere, oceans, and land. This eliminates the need for physical presence in hazardous or challenging environments, such as polar regions or disaster-stricken areas. Accuracy and Precision: Advanced sensors and instruments in space technology offer high levels of accuracy and precision in data collection. This is essential for understanding subtle changes in the climate system. Rapid Response to Natural Disasters: Space-based technology provides real-time data on extreme weather events, wildfires, and other climate-related disasters. This data aids in early warning, disaster management, and response efforts. Data Integration: Space technology data can be integrated with ground-based measurements and other data sources to create a comprehensive view of climate conditions and trends. This integrated approach enhances the accuracy of climate models and predictions. Long-Term Data Records: Satellites have been collecting climate data for decades, resulting in long-term data records that are invaluable for studying climate change over time and assessing its impacts. Climate Modeling: Space technology contributes to climate modeling by providing the observational data needed to validate and improve these models. Accurate models are essential for projecting future climate scenarios. Global Collaboration: Many space-based climate monitoring programs involve international collaboration, fostering cooperation in addressing climate change on a global scale. Climate Policy Support: Data from space technology informs climate policies and agreements by providing evidence of climate change trends, emissions sources, and the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation strategies. Public Awareness: The imagery and data collected by space technology are often used to raise public awareness about climate change, making complex scientific information more accessible to the general population. Global Coverage: Satellites equipped with Earth-observing sensors provide a global perspective, allowing for the monitoring of climate-related parameters across the entire planet. This comprehensive coverage ensures that even remote and inaccessible areas are included in climate assessments. Global Coverage: Continuous Monitoring: Space-based instruments operate 24/7 and can collect data continuously, providing a wealth of information on climate variables over extended periods. This data is crucial for tracking long-term climate trends and changes. Continuous Monitoring: Large-Scale Data Collection: Space technology enables the collection of vast amounts of data, including temperature, sea-level rise, greenhouse gas concentrations, and more. This data forms the basis for climate models and predictions. Large-Scale Data Collection: Remote Sensing: Space technology allows for remote sensing of Earth’s systems, including the atmosphere, oceans, and land. This eliminates the need for physical presence in hazardous or challenging environments, such as polar regions or disaster-stricken areas. Remote Sensing: Accuracy and Precision: Advanced sensors and instruments in space technology offer high levels of accuracy and precision in data collection. This is essential for understanding subtle changes in the climate system. Accuracy and Precision: Rapid Response to Natural Disasters: Space-based technology provides real-time data on extreme weather events, wildfires, and other climate-related disasters. This data aids in early warning, disaster management, and response efforts. Rapid Response to Natural Disasters: Data Integration: Space technology data can be integrated with ground-based measurements and other data sources to create a comprehensive view of climate conditions and trends. This integrated approach enhances the accuracy of climate models and predictions. Data Integration: Long-Term Data Records: Satellites have been collecting climate data for decades, resulting in long-term data records that are invaluable for studying climate change over time and assessing its impacts. Long-Term Data Records: Climate Modeling: Space technology contributes to climate modeling by providing the observational data needed to validate and improve these models. Accurate models are essential for projecting future climate scenarios. Climate Modeling: Global Collaboration: Many space-based climate monitoring programs involve international collaboration, fostering cooperation in addressing climate change on a global scale. Global Collaboration: Climate Policy Support: Data from space technology informs climate policies and agreements by providing evidence of climate change trends, emissions sources, and the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation strategies. Climate Policy Support: Public Awareness: The imagery and data collected by space technology are often used to raise public awareness about climate change, making complex scientific information more accessible to the general population. Public Awareness: Thus, space technology’s ability to provide global, continuous, accurate, and long-term data on Earth’s climate makes it an indispensable tool in the fight against climate change. It supports climate research, informs decision-making, and helps societies worldwide better understand and address the challenges posed by a changing climate. Part II: SpaceTech Applications for Climate Change Space technology plays a vital role in monitoring and addressing climate change by providing valuable data and tools. Satellite technology has long been used to predict the weather, with meteorological forecasts able to act as early warning systems for extreme weather events. The technology is also key for documenting environmental changes and informing decision-making by measuring sea levels, atmospheric gases, and the planet’s changing temperature, among other factors. There are currently more than 160 satellites measuring different global warming indicators, with more than half of essential climate variables only measurable from space. Satellite technology more than 160 satellites measuring different global warming indicators Types of Satellites for Climate Various types of satellites are used for climate monitoring and research, each with specific instruments and capabilities to gather data related to climate variables. The key types of satellites used for climate purposes are: Earth-observing Satellites: These satellites are equipped with various sensors and instruments to monitor Earth’s climate system. They capture data on parameters such as temperature, humidity, cloud cover, and aerosols. Examples include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) GOES series and Europe’s Meteosat series. Remote Sensing Satellites: Remote sensing satellites capture high-resolution images and data of Earth’s surface. They are essential for monitoring land cover, land use changes, deforestation, and other factors that influence the climate. The Landsat series is a prominent example. Atmospheric Satellites: These satellites focus on monitoring the atmosphere’s properties and composition. They help in tracking greenhouse gases, ozone concentrations, and other atmospheric components relevant to climate change. NASA’s Aura satellite is one such example. Ocean-observing Satellites: These satellites specialize in observing ocean parameters critical to climate, including sea surface temperature, sea-level rise, and ocean currents. Notable examples are the Copernicus Sentinel-3 satellites and NASA’s Jason series. Polar-orbiting Satellites: These satellites orbit Earth from pole to pole and provide global coverage. They are used for collecting data on a wide range of climate-related parameters, from sea ice extent to atmospheric temperature and humidity. The NOAA’s JPSS series is an example. Geostationary Satellites: Positioned in geostationary orbits, these satellites offer continuous monitoring of specific regions, making them useful for tracking weather and climate patterns in real-time. Examples include the GOES series in the United States and the Himawari satellite series in Japan. Climate Observing Satellites: Some satellites are specifically designed for climate research. They carry advanced instruments to measure greenhouse gas concentrations, monitor the Earth’s radiation balance, and track changes in ice sheets and glaciers. The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Climate Change Initiative (CCI) program utilizes several climate-focused satellites. Earth-observing Satellites: These satellites are equipped with various sensors and instruments to monitor Earth’s climate system. They capture data on parameters such as temperature, humidity, cloud cover, and aerosols. Examples include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) GOES series and Europe’s Meteosat series. Earth-observing Satellites: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) GOES Europe’s Meteosat series Remote Sensing Satellites: Remote sensing satellites capture high-resolution images and data of Earth’s surface. They are essential for monitoring land cover, land use changes, deforestation, and other factors that influence the climate. The Landsat series is a prominent example. Remote Sensing Satellites: The Landsat series Atmospheric Satellites: These satellites focus on monitoring the atmosphere’s properties and composition. They help in tracking greenhouse gases, ozone concentrations, and other atmospheric components relevant to climate change. NASA’s Aura satellite is one such example. Atmospheric Satellites: NASA’s Aura satellite Ocean-observing Satellites: These satellites specialize in observing ocean parameters critical to climate, including sea surface temperature, sea-level rise, and ocean currents. Notable examples are the Copernicus Sentinel-3 satellites and NASA’s Jason series. Ocean-observing Satellites: Copernicus Sentinel-3 NASA’s Jason series Polar-orbiting Satellites: These satellites orbit Earth from pole to pole and provide global coverage. They are used for collecting data on a wide range of climate-related parameters, from sea ice extent to atmospheric temperature and humidity. The NOAA’s JPSS series is an example. Polar-orbiting Satellites: The NOAA’s JPSS series Geostationary Satellites: Positioned in geostationary orbits, these satellites offer continuous monitoring of specific regions, making them useful for tracking weather and climate patterns in real-time. Examples include the GOES series in the United States and the Himawari satellite series in Japan. Geostationary Satellites: GOES series Himawari satellite series Climate Observing Satellites: Some satellites are specifically designed for climate research. They carry advanced instruments to measure greenhouse gas concentrations, monitor the Earth’s radiation balance, and track changes in ice sheets and glaciers. The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Climate Change Initiative (CCI) program utilizes several climate-focused satellites. Climate Observing Satellites: The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Climate Change Initiative (CCI) These types of satellites, working in coordination and complementing each other’s data, provide a comprehensive view of Earth’s climate system. They play a crucial role in monitoring climate change, conducting climate research, and helping policymakers make informed decisions to address climate-related challenges. Applications of Satellite Technology for Climate Change 1. Earth Observation Earth Observation refers to the monitoring of the Earth’s surface, atmosphere, and properties by satellites. Satellites equipped with sensors and instruments can monitor various aspects of Earth’s climate. They provide data on temperature, sea-level rise, land-use changes, and greenhouse gas concentrations, helping scientists track climate trends and make informed decisions. Earth Observation Data from Earth Observation Satellites (EOS) is ground-breaking when it comes to assessing the pace of climate change across nearly all parts of the Earth’s ecosystem, from oceans to land surfaces to snow cover. EOS can monitor forest carbon stocks, soil moisture, and mass movements like floods, landslides, and other natural disasters both natural and human-induced. Earth Observation Satellites (EOS) Several Arab countries have developed remote sensing satellites to help with the fight against climate change. The United Arab Emirates National Space Program and Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) have launched several satellites since 2009 to provide data on air quality, water resources, and weather patterns. The UAE launched two observation satellites in 2009 and 2013, DubaiSat-1 and DubaiSat-2 in partnership with the South Korean company, Satrec Initiative. These EOS provide high-resolution imagery for monitoring the environment, managing disasters, and urban planning. Saudi Arabia partnered with China and launched SaudiSat-5A and SaudiSat-5B in 2018 and they also provide high-resolution imagery for resource management. Algeria launched several EOS through its Algerian Space Agency (ASAL), including a nanosatellite AlSat-IN and Alsat-21A, and Alsat-2B. Morocco has launched the Mohammed VI-A and Mohammed VI-B satellites, which are used for land use mapping, monitoring the coastal zone, and disaster management. Egypt also uses its remote sensing satellites, EgyptSat-1 and EgyptSat-2, for urban planning, monitoring natural resources, and natural disasters, as does Tunisia with its Challenge One satellite. The United Arab Emirates National Space Program Mohammed Bin Rashid Space Centre (MBRSC) DubaiSat-1 DubaiSat-2 Satrec Initiative SaudiSat-5A SaudiSat-5B Algerian Space Agency (ASAL) Mohammed VI-B satellites Challenge One satellite With the contribution of satellite data, new tools make it possible to monitor methane gas emissions into the atmosphere, the second most important cause of global warming. The Copernicus Sentinel-5P satellite also collects information from other sources. This tool can also monitor a refinery or an animal farm’s atmospheric methane emissions. This way, the oil and gas industries can monitor their own environmental impact, be transparent about their oil and gas emissions, and provide information to both investors and users. Copernicus Sentinel-5P The NISAR satellite is equipped with two radars designed to study glaciers and volcanoes. It is designed to observe any changes in the earth’s surface, as well as to enable forest observation and the changes they go through from the carbon dioxide they contain or other processes. NISAR satellite 2. Tracking GHG Emissions & Carbon Cycle Monitoring The tracking of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is included in the Global Stocktakes (GST) that takes place every 5 years. The first phase is from 2021 to 2023. GST is the process of taking stock of the implementation of the Paris Agreement, the main goal of which is to monitor the world’s collective progress in achieving the set long-term goals of the Agreement. A task group, appointed by the Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA), is in charge of the technical assessment component of the first global stocktake. During these assessments, countries aim to lower their emissions by following their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which contribute to the overall global sum of national emissions. Global Stocktakes (GST) Conference of the Parties serving as the Meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) A new report from Inmarsat and Globant finds existing satellite technologies could save up to 5.5 billion tonnes of CO2 a year. Satellite technologies are already reducing carbon emissions by 1.5 billion tonnes (or 1.5 gigatons) every year, according to the independent research report Can Space Help Save The Planet? commissioned by Inmarsat from leading consultants at Globant’s Sustainable Business Studio. This is equivalent to almost four times the entire UK’s annual emissions in 2021 or the lifetime emissions of 50 million cars. Inmarsat Globant ould save up to 5.5 billion tonnes of CO2 a year. Can Space Help Save The Planet? Globant’s Sustainable Business Studio Demonstrating the possibilities of space technologies, the report focuses on three industry sectors: 1) transport and logistics, 2) agriculture, forestry, and other land use, and 3) energy systems. Together these account for approximately 60% of global emissions. If satellite technologies were adopted universally by these industries, the CO2 savings currently being delivered through satellite technologies could almost quadruple to up to 5.5 billion tonnes a year based on current technologies alone, the Globant analysis suggests. This is equivalent to one-sixth of the total carbon emissions currently estimated as necessary to keep the global temperatures rise below 1.5c by 2030 — or one-third of that necessary to keep temperature rises below 2c — underlining the positive impact space technologies could have on the largest single challenge facing the world. Based on the research, the Globant calculations suggest that the world is currently missing out on up to four billion tonnes of potential and immediate CO2 reductions by not taking advantage of the decarbonizing abilities of satellite technologies. These technologies enable fuel consumption savings and improved routing in transport, reduced energy use and optimization in energy, and even fire prevention in forestry, among many others. Currently, satellites equipped with spectrometers can measure CO2 levels in the Earth’s atmosphere. This data helps in identifying sources of CO2 emissions and assessing their impact on climate. Satellite applications that have been used extensively to tackle global warming include those of the ESA Climate Change Initiative (CCI), which has provided long-term climate records, Copernicus Climate Change Services, which contributes to adaptation and mitigation efforts, and Italy’s Monte Rosa Glacier, which monitors melting glaciers. The use of space resources has been a growth catalyst for various industries including transportation, banking, internet services, healthcare, telecommunication, agriculture, and energy, and countries are fast acquiring space assets as part of their economic and development plans. By 2022, there were over 5,000 satellites in orbit able to identify illegal logging, mining, fishing, and more and they’re even helping with GHG emissions. ESA Climate Change Initiative (CCI) Copernicus Climate Change Services Monte Rosa Glacier ESA launched the Sentinel-5P in 2017, it was the first Copernicus satellite specifically built to monitor the atmosphere. It carries the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI), an advanced multispectral imaging spectrometer that monitors a wide range of air pollutants like nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and even the hole in the Ozone layer over Antarctica. Sentinel-5P Sentinel-5P TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument ( TROPOMI TROPOMI ) Tropomi has the capability to measure at a spatial resolution of 7 x 7 km and global coverage every 24 hours. Scientists from SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research in collaboration with ESA spent over a year assessing the data on methane and ozone in the troposphere collected by Tropomi. The data has already been made available to everyone, especially policymakers, who can use it to inform policy actions. The data revealed that despite carbon dioxide being associated with global warming, methane is about 30 percent more potent as a heat-trapping gas and it is mostly emitted by landfill sites, livestock farming, rice agriculture, and wetlands. SRON Netherlands Institute for Space Research GHGSat is a Canadian company with the goal of providing a precise, scalable, and economical method of measuring GHG emissions from industrial facilities worldwide. The first GHGSat satellite, GHGSat-D or “Claire”, is a demonstration small satellite that measures surface-level methane emission plumes with high spatial resolution for facility-scale attribution. Delivering this performance in a compact package enables low-cost launch and operation of the satellite so that a constellation can be used for high-density coverage. To date, GHGSat-D has performed over 5,000 observations of commercial facilities in oil–gas, power generation, coal mining, waste management, and agriculture sectors around the world. GHGSat GHGSat GHGSat-D Measuring the Thermal Footprint of Buildings Measuring the Thermal Footprint of Buildings Earth observation company SatelliteVu provides the world’s first satellite constellations that measure the thermal footprint of any building on Earth in near real-time every hour or two. This information supports the work to increase the energy efficiency of worldwide infrastructures such as factories and power stations. The unique sensors detect the surface temperature on Earth as well as heat emitted from buildings. This informs town authorities and business leaders about energy loss hotspots in buildings and waterways. So far, thermal space imaging has used low resolutions, but new thermal imaging satellites released by SatelliteVu will offer an improved resolution with more detail. SatelliteVu has recently announced they it will make its carbon emissions data open-access in a commitment to raise awareness of sustainability in the business economy. SatelliteVu measure the thermal footprint of any building on Earth 3. Weather Forecasting & Climate Modeling Weather satellites orbiting Earth provide real-time data on weather patterns, enabling meteorologists to predict and monitor extreme weather events, which are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. Each meteorological satellite is designed to use one of two different classes of orbit: geostationary and polar-orbiting. Geostationary Weather Satellites Geostationary Weather Satellites Geostationary weather satellites orbit the Earth above the equator at altitudes of 35,880 km. Several geostationary meteorological spacecraft are in operation. The United States’ GOES series. China currently has Fengyun (风云) geostationary satellites operated. India also operates geostationary satellites called INSAT which carry instruments for meteorological purposes. GOES series Fengyun (风云) Europe’s EUMETSAT has the Meteosat series in operation. The Meteosat satellites are in geostationary orbit 36,000km above the Earth. and provide imagery for the early detection of fast-developing severe weather (nowcasting), weather forecasting, and climate monitoring. Meteosat’s valuable contribution will continue into the 2040s with the advent of Meteosat Third Generation (MTG) from early 2020 onwards. EUMETSAT Meteosat series imagery climate monitoring Meteosat Third Generation The MTG satellites are three-axis stabilized rather than spin-stabilized, giving greater flexibility in satellite and instrument design. The MTG system features separate Imager and Sounder satellite models that share the same satellite bus, with a baseline of three satellites — two Imagers and one Sounder — forming the operational configuration. The imager satellites carry the Flexible Combined Imager (FCI), succeeding MVIRI and SEVIRI to give even greater resolution and spectral coverage, scanning the full Earth disc every ten minutes, as well as a new Lightning Imager (LI) payload. The sounder satellites carry the Infrared Sounder (IRS) and Ultra-violet Visible Near-infrared (UVN) instruments. UVN is part of the Copernicus program and fulfills the Sentinel-4 mission to monitor air quality, trace gases, and aerosols over Europe hourly at high spatial resolution. satellite models Flexible Combined Imager (FCI) MVIRI SEVIRI Lightning Imager (LI) Infrared Sounder (IRS) Ultra-violet Visible Near-infrared (UVN) Copernicus program Sentinel-4 mission Two MTG satellites — one Imager and one Sounder — operate in close proximity from the 0-deg geostationary location over western Africa to observe the eastern Atlantic Ocean, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while a second imager satellite will operate from 9.5-deg East to perform a Rapid Scanning mission over Europe. Rapid Scanning mission The Meteosat Third Generation — Imager 1 (MTG-I1) was launched in December 2022, and the first image reveals a level of detail about the weather over Europe and Africa not previously possible from 36,000km above the Earth. MTG-I1 Polar Orbiting Weather Satellites Polar Orbiting Weather Satellites Polar orbiting weather satellites circle the Earth at a typical altitude of 850 km in a north-to-south (or vice versa) path, passing over the poles in their continuous flight. Polar orbiting weather satellites are in sun-synchronous orbits, which means they are able to observe any place on Earth and will view every location twice each day with the same general lighting conditions due to the near-constant local solar time. The United States has the NOAA series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites. Russia has the Meteor and RESURS series of satellites. China has FY-3A, 3B, and 3C. India has polar-orbiting satellites as well. NOAA series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites Meteor RESURS series of satellites Europe has the Metop satellites operated by EUMETSAT. The Metop satellites are closer to the Earth in a polar orbit (817 km above the Earth) providing detailed global observations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land. These data are essential for weather forecasting up to 10 days ahead and climate monitoring. Metop’s valuable contributions will continue into the 2040s with the advent of Metop Second Generation (Metop-SG) from the mid-2020s onwards. EUMETSAT The Metop satellites Metop Second Generation Climate Modeling Climate Modeling The information from next-generation satellites could improve forecasts for rising sea levels, as well as global weather and climate patterns. One such example is NASA’s Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite-2 (ICESat-2) which takes measurements every 85 centimeters along its ground path. The satellite was developed to provide extra information on how ice cover changes over the course of a year. Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite-2 takes measurements every 85 centimeters along its ground path Advanced computer models that incorporate satellite data help scientists simulate and predict climate change scenarios. This aids in understanding how climate systems are evolving and how different factors contribute to global warming. Satellite observations integrated into complex climate models could improve predictions of temperature changes, extreme weather events, and regional climate impacts. Recently, working with data from ICESat-2 mission is now much easier thanks to the first-phase release of the NASA-funded OpenAltimetry cyberinfrastructure platform. OpenAltimetry is a powerful map-based data visualization and discovery tool. After extensive development and testing, OpenAltimetry is now available in NASA’s Earthdata Cloud. ICESat-2 OpenAltimetry Earthdata Cloud Within the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) framework, NASA scientists and California state officials are working together. Trying to apply satellite data, new laser and radar technologies, and 3D imagery to the Earth’s changing climate systems. The goal is to obtain sufficient data for scientific solutions and apply space technology expertise against climate change and global warming. California is mostly struck by these problems, resulting in persistent droughts, unusually high-temperature summers, and loss of vegetation because of increasing destructive wildfires. For these reasons, the Agency has been studying Mars, with the same intensity as our planet, for solutions to our environmental problems. The Agency aims for a more accurate picture of what is happening in the lithosphere, oceans, and atmosphere. It will implement new tools to measure key aspects, such as the evolution of perpetual snow and the state of groundwater. Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) working together new tools 4. Sea-Level Rise & Ice Sheet Monitoring, Ocean Dynamics Monitoring Satellites equipped with radar altimeters can accurately measure changes in sea level. Rising sea levels are a direct result of climate change, and this data helps coastal communities plan for mitigation and adaptation strategies. The Sentinel-6 and Jason-3 satellites provide global sea surface height observations for climate monitoring and ocean and seasonal forecasts. Sentinel-6 Jason-3 sea surface height Jason-3 has a payload of several instruments — the Poseidon-3B altimeter, the AMR radiometer, three location systems, and two experimental instruments. The primary instrument on Jason-3 is a radar altimeter. The altimeter measures sea-level variations over the global ocean with very high accuracy (1.3in or 3.3cm, with a goal of 1in or 2.5cm). The Copernicus Sentinel-3A and -3B satellites collect observations of global ocean color, sea surface temperature, and sea surface height. Sentinel-3 ocean color sea surface temperature sea surface height In addition, EUMETSAT’s Meteosat satellites provide hourly measurements of sea surface temperature, while the Metop satellites provide global observations of ocean surface wind, sea ice, and sea surface temperature, plus collect observations of the ocean through the ARGOS system. Meteosat sea surface temperature Metop ocean surface wind sea ice sea surface temperature ARGOS Sea-Level Rise Monitoring Sea-Level Rise Monitoring The Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) mission brings together two communities focused on a better understanding of the world’s oceans and its terrestrial surface waters. SWOT is a satellite that measures lakes and watercourses to better understand the water cycle for its optimization. Oceanographers hydrologists and international partners have joined forces to develop this satellite mission to make the first global survey of Earth’s surface water, observe the fine details of the ocean’s surface topography, and measure how water bodies change over time. The SWOT satellite observatory consists of a Payload Module and a Spacecraft Bus. Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) SWOT Another tool is the OpenET platform which was created to provide farmers, water managers, and all forestry professionals with satellite-based evapotranspiration (ET) data collected by NASA for over 20 years. It is intended to accelerate water management optimization. Users can access ET data at the field scale for millions of individual fields or at the original quarter-acre resolution of the satellite data. Evapotranspiration is a fundamental measure of the amount of water resources used by a given agricultural crop. This way, supply and demand can be balanced and significant savings made. OpenET platform water management optimization Evapotranspiration Mapping Ice Sheet Mapping Ice Sheet Satellites can track the melting of polar ice sheets and glaciers, providing essential information on the rate of ice loss, which contributes to rising sea levels. Over a longer period of time, Space 2.0 technologies implemented via satellites can provide accurate data on the chronological changes taking place on ice sheets, ice caps, sea levels, and weather patterns as a result of global warming. In 2018, NASA launched a new cutting-edge satellite to map the loss of ice in Greenland precisely: ICESat-2. ICESat-2’s spacecraft provides power, propulsion, orbit, navigation, data storage, and handling, and features precise knowledge of the satellite’s position in space — which is critical for taking highly accurate measurements. ICESat-2. ICESat-2 follows a previous five-year mission, the ICESat, which concluded in 2009. The first ICESat helped demonstrate the way that ice cover has disappeared from coastal parts of both Greenland and Antarctica, as well as the thinning of sea ice. ICESat-2 provides additional information by examining how ice cover changes over the course of one year. It may help explain, for example, why the Tracy and Heilprin Glaciers, which flow side by side into Inglefield Gulf in northwest Greenland, are melting at radically different rates. Tracy and Heilprin Glaciers ICESat-2 is a spacecraft with a single major instrument, instead of the usual assortment of sensors and antennas. It deploys an industrial-size, hyper-precise altimeter: The Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS), which is a single, powerful green laser split into six beams (three pairs of two) that pass over the landscape in programmed patterns. The beams generate 10,000 laser light pulses per second, which beam 310 miles to the Earth’s surface and bounce back to the satellite. This process detects intricate details such as crevasses in a glacier, and each photon finds a location that is monitored and stored, after processing this data, scientists can report on factors such as the height of vegetation or the depth of the sea. The Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System (ATLAS) The ICESat-2 completed its 3-year prime mission in 2021 and is currently in extended operation. Scientists used a combination of lidar (ICESat-2) and radar (CryoSat-2) data to estimate the snow depth of the Arctic sea ice. CryoSat-2 Data from ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2 show that the Arctic Sea ice was 1.5 feet thinner in 2021 than in 2019. The study, “Arctic snow depth, ice thickness and volume from ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2”, reports the thinning to be a cause of multiyear ice, which is a decline in sea ice that persists over several years. They analyzed the estimates alongside the height of sea ice visible above water. The results revealed that, so far, the multiyear Arctic ice has experienced a 16 percent reduction in its winter volume, which is approximately half a meter (1.5 feet) in thickness, and has lost one-third of its winter sea ice volume in the past 18 years. Arctic snow depth, ice thickness and volume from ICESat-2 and CryoSat-2 5. Forest and Land Use Monitoring Deforestation contributes to climate change so restoring forests could help combat it. Some 10 million hectares of the world’s forests are lost every year, according to the United Nations. This deforestation accounts for 20% of all the world’s carbon dioxide emissions, according to the World Wildlife Fund, which adds that “by reducing forest loss, we can reduce carbon emissions and fight climate change”. according to the United Nations. according to the World Wildlife Fund, “by reducing forest loss, we can reduce carbon emissions and fight climate change”. “by reducing forest loss, we can reduce carbon emissions and fight climate change”. Space technology allows for the monitoring of deforestation, afforestation, and land-use changes. This data is crucial for tracking carbon emissions and understanding the impact of land use on climate. Satellites equipped with optical and radar sensors can detect changes in forest cover, facilitate anti-deforestation efforts, and support reforestation initiatives. The RADARSAT Constellation Mission (RCM), launched in June 2019 in Canada, adds a new series of applications that come as the result of the constellation model. RCM data enables scientists to detect harvesting and monitor forest regeneration, as well as to optimize forest management in order to preserve biodiversity and resource supply and ensure sustainable development. It also allows for a more accurate assessment of various forest features. RADARSAT Constellation Mission The constellation will consist of a fleet of three spacecraft, and be both complementary and a follow-on to the upcoming deployment of the RADARSAT-2 mission. The primary purpose of the RCM is to provide C-Band data continuity for RADARSAT-2 users, as well as add a new series of applications enabled through the constellation approach. The spacecraft Payload will consist of a Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor integrated with an Automated Identification System (AIS). The SAR Payload concept is a 2-panel deployable SAR antenna of length approximately 7 meters. RADARSAT-2 mission Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Automated Identification System (AIS) The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)’s Framework for Ecosystem Monitoring (Ferm) website uses satellite imagery to highlight changes to forests around the world. The maps and data are accessible to any internet user. A key data source for Ferm is NASA, and its Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation system (Gedi). Maps and data are also provided to Ferm by US business Planet, which operates more than 200 camera-equipped satellites. These take some 350 million photos of Earth’s surface on a daily basis, each covering an area of one sq km. Food and Agricultural Organization Framework for Ecosystem Monitoring (Ferm) Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation system US business Planet 6. Managing Methane Emissions Methane emissions from fossil fuels make up over a quarter of our global temperature rise. Methane emissions commonly derive from the production of fossil fuels such as oil and gas and large-scale livestock farming. The Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) has developed a compact satellite called MethaneSat which monitors methane reductions on the planet, with more accuracy than any other satellite. This will help to monitor the activity of the oil and gas industry to find out how great the methane immersions in the industry are and pinpoint where the highest levels of emissions derive from. Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) MethaneSat Another great provider of analytical insights is Sylvera, the world’s first carbon offset rating provider. The company is using machine learning and satellite data to support the carbon offsetting industry. These are valued services to investors as firms face more stringent carbon credit standards and work to transition to a carbon-neutral status. Sylvera 7. Natural Disaster Management & Risk Prevention Space technology aids in disaster management and response. Satellites can provide imagery and data during events like hurricanes, wildfires, and floods, helping authorities plan and respond effectively. Space-based technologies can contribute to all phases of the disaster management cycle, including prevention, preparedness, early warning, response, and reconstruction. Before a disaster takes place, remotely sensed data provides information for systems and models that can predict disasters and provide early warnings. Satellites are also reliable and rapid communication, observation, and positioning tools, which become particularly vital to relief and recovery operations when ground-based infrastructure is damaged. can contribute to all phases of the disaster management cycle Businesses also have a strong interest in knowing how climate change may affect them. With Climate Ready Risk Mitigation, created by AccuWeather, they can forecast weather events for activities’ long-term planning, as well as assess the measures taken to avoid losses due to weather-related natural catastrophes. This tool also allows the identification of specific negative risks. Helping them increase security in the most vulnerable areas, and supply chain adaptability. The ultimate goal is to avoid millions of dollars in losses from persistent floods or droughts, which are increasing in time. Climate Ready Risk Mitigation AccuWeather 8. Renewable Energy Planning Solar and wind resource maps derived from satellite data help identify suitable locations for renewable energy projects, reducing reliance on fossil fuels. The data gathered from weather satellites also help support solar cells to generate more energy. To maximize the amount of electricity from new wind turbines, the French company Leosphere developed a small instrument to measure wind speed and direction from the ground up to heights of 200 meters. The lidar technology is similar to that which ESA will use on its Aeolus satellite to provide global observations of wind profiles from space. ESA’s expertise from this mission was important for Leosphere and was used to improve their instrument during the company’s start-up phase. More instruments based on the same technology have followed and these are now being used in more than 100 countries. Leosphere lidar technology Aeolus satellite By using data from weather satellites, ‘SolarSAT’ from Italian company Flyby can accurately predict the power output of photovoltaic power plants. This information is used to design improved systems and quickly identify faults in operating photovoltaic plants — faults that can reduce energy production by more than 10% a year. This system has already been installed on several photovoltaic systems in Italy. SolarSAT Flyby 9. Precision Agriculture Space technology can assist in sustainable agriculture practices by providing data on soil moisture, crop health, and weather conditions, optimizing resource usage, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Satellite imagery and climate data can also support other sectors such as agriculture and industry, with additional benefits to the communities they serve. Digital Earth Africa uses Open Data Cube and Amazon Web Services to make global satellite data more accessible and highlight how it can be used to bridge social and economic inequalities. Such information can be used to help farmers improve agricultural yield, thereby reducing hunger; tackle unregulated mining and its knock-on effects; and identify new opportunities for economic growth. Digital Earth Africa Open Data Cube Amazon Web Services bridge social and economic inequalities 10. Tracking animals The International Co-operation for Animal Research Using Space (Icarus) initiative is using a satellite on the ISS to create an “internet of animals”. Scientists hope to track the migratory patterns of birds and animals from space with the aid of thumbnail-sized transmitters attached to their backs. The data is then beamed to the ISS, where it is transmitted to a ground station. The resulting synopsis of animal life on Earth could later be used to transmit other environmental data. International Co-operation for Animal Research Using Space (Icarus) initiative ISS AI cameras to monitor wildlife crime: Satellites have also been used in Africa to help prevent big game poachers from killing protected species. US nonprofit Resolve has worked with UK satellite provider Inmarsat to develop a Trailguard AI anti-poaching camera system that helps national parks detect, stop, and locate poachers. Testing at Tanzania’s Grumeti Reserve led to the arrest of 30 poachers and the seizure of more than 590 kilograms of bushmeat. AI cameras to monitor wildlife crime: Inmarsat Trailguard AI arrest of 30 poachers and the seizure of more than 590 kilograms of bushmeat Part III: Climate SpaceTech Landscape Several space technology organizations and key players are actively involved in climate-related space missions and initiatives: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration): NASA is a leader in Earth observation and climate research. They operate numerous Earth-observing satellites, including the Terra and Aqua satellites, which provide critical data on climate variables. ESA (European Space Agency): ESA conducts climate research and operates several Earth-observing missions, such as the Copernicus Sentinel series. They collaborate with NASA and other international partners on climate-related projects. NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration): NOAA plays a significant role in monitoring and understanding climate change, particularly through its GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) and JPSS (Joint Polar Satellite System) programs. Copernicus (European Union Earth Observation Program): Copernicus is a comprehensive Earth observation program that provides free and open data for climate monitoring. It includes the Copernicus Sentinel satellites and the Copernicus Climate Change Service. JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency): JAXA operates Earth-observing satellites like the GCOM series and the Himawari geostationary satellites, which contribute to climate research and weather forecasting. CSA (Canadian Space Agency): CSA collaborates on international climate research projects and provides data from their Earth-observing satellites, such as RADARSAT. CNSA (China National Space Administration): China is expanding its role in climate research and Earth observation, with satellites like the Fengyun series and the Earth-observing satellites under the Gaofen program. ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation): ISRO operates Earth observation satellites like the INSAT series and the Resourcesat series, which contribute to climate monitoring and agricultural applications. Private Companies: Private companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Planet Labs are increasingly involved in Earth observation missions, including climate-related projects. They offer commercial solutions and launch services for climate monitoring payloads. International Organizations: The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) play key roles in coordinating international efforts related to climate monitoring, research, and climate policy. Research Institutions: Universities and research institutions worldwide conduct climate research and contribute to space missions and climate modeling. Institutions such as NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) are examples of leading research centers. Commercial Data Providers: Companies like Maxar, and Airbus offer commercial Earth observation data and services, which are valuable for climate research and applications. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration): NASA is a leader in Earth observation and climate research. They operate numerous Earth-observing satellites, including the Terra and Aqua satellites, which provide critical data on climate variables. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration): NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration): ESA (European Space Agency): ESA conducts climate research and operates several Earth-observing missions, such as the Copernicus Sentinel series. They collaborate with NASA and other international partners on climate-related projects. ESA (European Space Agency): ESA (European Space Agency): NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration): NOAA plays a significant role in monitoring and understanding climate change, particularly through its GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites) and JPSS (Joint Polar Satellite System) programs. NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration): NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration): Copernicus (European Union Earth Observation Program): Copernicus is a comprehensive Earth observation program that provides free and open data for climate monitoring. It includes the Copernicus Sentinel satellites and the Copernicus Climate Change Service. Copernicus (European Union Earth Observation Program): Copernicus (European Union Earth Observation Program): JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency): JAXA operates Earth-observing satellites like the GCOM series and the Himawari geostationary satellites, which contribute to climate research and weather forecasting. JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency): JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency): CSA (Canadian Space Agency): CSA collaborates on international climate research projects and provides data from their Earth-observing satellites, such as RADARSAT. CSA (Canadian Space Agency): CSA (Canadian Space Agency): CNSA (China National Space Administration): China is expanding its role in climate research and Earth observation, with satellites like the Fengyun series and the Earth-observing satellites under the Gaofen program. CNSA (China National Space Administration): CNSA (China National Space Administration): ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation): ISRO operates Earth observation satellites like the INSAT series and the Resourcesat series, which contribute to climate monitoring and agricultural applications. ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation): ISRO (Indian Space Research Organisation): Private Companies: Private companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin, and Planet Labs are increasingly involved in Earth observation missions, including climate-related projects. They offer commercial solutions and launch services for climate monitoring payloads. Private Companies: SpaceX Blue Origin Planet Labs International Organizations: The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) play key roles in coordinating international efforts related to climate monitoring, research, and climate policy. International Organizations: The World Meteorological Organization United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Research Institutions: Universities and research institutions worldwide conduct climate research and contribute to space missions and climate modeling. Institutions such as NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) are examples of leading research centers. Research Institutions: NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies uropean Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Commercial Data Providers: Companies like Maxar, and Airbus offer commercial Earth observation data and services, which are valuable for climate research and applications. Commercial Data Providers: Maxar Airbus These organizations and key players collaborate on various space missions and initiatives to enhance our understanding of climate change, monitor its effects, and provide policymakers, scientists, and the public with critical climate-related data and insights. Their combined efforts are essential in addressing the global challenge of climate change. ESA’s Supported Companies ESA’s Supported Companies ESA is a significant player in climate change mitigation and fostering and supporting technologies and business ideas that help the environment. Some of those ideas help the environment with energy-saving: is a significant player in climate change mitigation Leosphere: A French company that maximizes the amount of electricity from wind turbines. The technology called Windcube accurately measures wind in remote locations, offering a better understanding of the wind conditions, which is critical to determining the best position for the wind turbines. The system used is similar to the one used by ESA on its Aeolus Earth Explorer Atmospheric Dynamics Mission, responsible for providing, from space, global observation of wind, capable of improving weather forecasts and our understanding of atmospheric dynamics and climate processes. Using similar tech, Leosphere developed other systems for clouds and aerosol parameters measurement, facilitating the meteorological process, and helping with climate change. Flyby: The Italian company supported by the ESA with its SolarSat system, which uses data from a weather satellite Meteosat, to map the amount of sunshine available. With this information, the system can accurately estimate the power output of photovoltaic or solar power plants, determining the most suitable location for the power plants, as well as monitor their performance identifying faults that could lead to a 10% reduction in clean energy production. ESCUBE: The space technology used for measuring oxygen levels around spacecraft reentry vehicles has been used to reduce the emissions from heating systems. The miniaturized ceramic gas sensor ESCUBE, accurately controls heater combustion, one of the principal pollutant sources. That can reduce the exhaust of those gases and ensure that the heating system (both industrial and home) is working at optimum capacity, also reducing fuel consumption by 10 to 15%. The smart GreenDrive is an innovation to reduce fuel consumption and pollution emissions by cars using SATNAV systems. It uses information such as car model and brand, location, and road conditions to advise the driver on when to brake, keep speed or accelerate, and drive economically. That could save on 15–25% of fuel wasted on repeated rapid acceleration and abrupt braking. Galileo-Ecodrive also uses SATNAV systems — uses data on the road’s geodetic height profile to optimize the operation of auxiliary devices (electricity generators, air conditioning, power steering, the deep freezers) used on trucks for perishable goods and moveable parts of a cement mixer. That could lead to 2 billion liters saving in fuel and avoiding the emission of 5 million tons of CO², the main gas responsible for climate change. Leosphere: A French company that maximizes the amount of electricity from wind turbines. The technology called Windcube accurately measures wind in remote locations, offering a better understanding of the wind conditions, which is critical to determining the best position for the wind turbines. The system used is similar to the one used by ESA on its Aeolus Earth Explorer Atmospheric Dynamics Mission, responsible for providing, from space, global observation of wind, capable of improving weather forecasts and our understanding of atmospheric dynamics and climate processes. Using similar tech, Leosphere developed other systems for clouds and aerosol parameters measurement, facilitating the meteorological process, and helping with climate change. Leosphere: Leosphere Windcube Aeolus Earth Explorer Flyby: The Italian company supported by the ESA with its SolarSat system, which uses data from a weather satellite Meteosat, to map the amount of sunshine available. With this information, the system can accurately estimate the power output of photovoltaic or solar power plants, determining the most suitable location for the power plants, as well as monitor their performance identifying faults that could lead to a 10% reduction in clean energy production. Flyby: Flyby SolarSat system Meteosat ESCUBE: The space technology used for measuring oxygen levels around spacecraft reentry vehicles has been used to reduce the emissions from heating systems. The miniaturized ceramic gas sensor ESCUBE, accurately controls heater combustion, one of the principal pollutant sources. That can reduce the exhaust of those gases and ensure that the heating system (both industrial and home) is working at optimum capacity, also reducing fuel consumption by 10 to 15%. ESCUBE: ESCUBE The smart GreenDrive is an innovation to reduce fuel consumption and pollution emissions by cars using SATNAV systems. It uses information such as car model and brand, location, and road conditions to advise the driver on when to brake, keep speed or accelerate, and drive economically. That could save on 15–25% of fuel wasted on repeated rapid acceleration and abrupt braking. The smart GreenDrive The smart GreenDrive SATNAV systems Galileo-Ecodrive also uses SATNAV systems — uses data on the road’s geodetic height profile to optimize the operation of auxiliary devices (electricity generators, air conditioning, power steering, the deep freezers) used on trucks for perishable goods and moveable parts of a cement mixer. That could lead to 2 billion liters saving in fuel and avoiding the emission of 5 million tons of CO², the main gas responsible for climate change. Galileo-Ecodrive Galileo-Ecodrive SATNAV systems Part IV: Challenges & Prospects Challenges in Using SpaceTech to Address Climate Change Using space technology for climate-related purposes comes with several challenges, despite its numerous benefits. Some of the key challenges include: Cost: Developing, launching, and maintaining satellites and space missions is expensive. Budget constraints can limit the number and capabilities of climate-focused satellites and missions. Long Development Cycles: Space missions often have long development cycles, making it challenging to respond rapidly to evolving climate-related needs or to address emerging climate issues. Limited Data Resolution: While space technology provides global coverage, some climate variables require higher spatial and temporal resolution than those currently available from satellites. Data Gaps: Satellites may have gaps in data coverage due to factors like cloud cover or instrument malfunctions, limiting the continuity and accuracy of climate data records. Instrument Calibration and Validation: Ensuring the accuracy and consistency of data from space-based instruments requires extensive calibration and validation efforts, which can be resource-intensive. International Collaboration: Coordinating international efforts, data sharing, and collaboration among space agencies and organizations can be challenging due to differing priorities, policies, and geopolitical considerations. Data Access and Distribution: Ensuring that climate data collected by space technology is freely accessible and usable by scientists, policymakers, and the public is essential. Efforts are needed to address data access and distribution barriers. Orbital Debris and Space Congestion: The increasing amount of orbital debris and space congestion poses risks to satellites, potentially impacting climate monitoring missions. Limited Launch Opportunities: Access to space can be limited by launch availability, scheduling, and geopolitical factors, affecting the deployment of climate-related satellites. Technology Advancements: Keeping pace with rapid advancements in space technology is challenging. Upgrading or replacing older satellites and instruments with newer, more capable technology is essential for ongoing climate monitoring. Climate Model Integration: Integrating satellite data into climate models and ensuring consistency between model outputs and observational data can be complex. Space Debris and Collision Risk: As more satellites are launched, the risk of collisions and the generation of additional space debris increase. Space agencies must manage this risk carefully. Ethical Considerations: The ethical implications of space technology, such as space mining or the militarization of space, can intersect with climate efforts and need to be addressed. Cybersecurity: Ensuring the cybersecurity of space technology systems and data is critical, as they are vulnerable to cyberattacks that could disrupt climate monitoring and communication. Cost: Developing, launching, and maintaining satellites and space missions is expensive. Budget constraints can limit the number and capabilities of climate-focused satellites and missions. Cost: Long Development Cycles: Space missions often have long development cycles, making it challenging to respond rapidly to evolving climate-related needs or to address emerging climate issues. Long Development Cycles: Limited Data Resolution: While space technology provides global coverage, some climate variables require higher spatial and temporal resolution than those currently available from satellites. Limited Data Resolution: Data Gaps: Satellites may have gaps in data coverage due to factors like cloud cover or instrument malfunctions, limiting the continuity and accuracy of climate data records. Data Gaps: Instrument Calibration and Validation: Ensuring the accuracy and consistency of data from space-based instruments requires extensive calibration and validation efforts, which can be resource-intensive. Instrument Calibration and Validation: International Collaboration: Coordinating international efforts, data sharing, and collaboration among space agencies and organizations can be challenging due to differing priorities, policies, and geopolitical considerations. International Collaboration: Data Access and Distribution: Ensuring that climate data collected by space technology is freely accessible and usable by scientists, policymakers, and the public is essential. Efforts are needed to address data access and distribution barriers. Data Access and Distribution: Orbital Debris and Space Congestion: The increasing amount of orbital debris and space congestion poses risks to satellites, potentially impacting climate monitoring missions. Orbital Debris and Space Congestion: Limited Launch Opportunities: Access to space can be limited by launch availability, scheduling, and geopolitical factors, affecting the deployment of climate-related satellites. Limited Launch Opportunities: Technology Advancements: Keeping pace with rapid advancements in space technology is challenging. Upgrading or replacing older satellites and instruments with newer, more capable technology is essential for ongoing climate monitoring. Technology Advancements: Climate Model Integration: Integrating satellite data into climate models and ensuring consistency between model outputs and observational data can be complex. Climate Model Integration: Space Debris and Collision Risk: As more satellites are launched, the risk of collisions and the generation of additional space debris increase. Space agencies must manage this risk carefully. Space Debris and Collision Risk: Ethical Considerations: The ethical implications of space technology, such as space mining or the militarization of space, can intersect with climate efforts and need to be addressed. Ethical Considerations: Cybersecurity: Ensuring the cybersecurity of space technology systems and data is critical, as they are vulnerable to cyberattacks that could disrupt climate monitoring and communication. Cybersecurity: Despite these challenges, space technology remains an invaluable tool for climate research, monitoring, and mitigation efforts. Addressing these challenges requires ongoing international collaboration, investment in technology and infrastructure, and a commitment to open data sharing and access. Prospects of Using SpaceTech to Address Climate Change The prospects of using space technology for climate-related purposes are promising and offer several significant advantages: Global Coverage: Space technology, such as Earth-observing satellites, provides global coverage, allowing for the monitoring of climate variables and phenomena across the entire planet, including remote and inaccessible regions. Long-Term Data Records: Space-based climate monitoring has generated long-term data records, some spanning decades. These records are essential for tracking climate trends, understanding climate change impacts, and making informed decisions. High Precision and Accuracy: Space-based instruments provide high precision and accuracy in measuring climate variables, ensuring data quality and reliability for climate research and modeling. Real-Time Monitoring: Geostationary satellites offer real-time monitoring of weather patterns and extreme events, enabling timely warnings and responses to natural disasters exacerbated by climate change. Enhanced Climate Models: Space data is integrated into climate models to improve their accuracy and predictability, aiding in understanding complex climate processes and projecting future climate scenarios. Data Continuity: Space agencies and organizations are committed to ensuring data continuity, allowing for the seamless transition between old and new satellites, and maintaining consistent data records. Technological Advancements: Advances in space technology continue to enhance the capabilities of Earth-observing satellites, enabling the collection of more diverse and precise climate data. Climate Adaptation and Mitigation: Space technology supports climate adaptation efforts by providing data for better-informed decisions in sectors like agriculture, water resources, and disaster management. It also aids in monitoring and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Global Collaboration: Climate change is a global issue, and space agencies worldwide collaborate on climate research and monitoring, fostering international cooperation in addressing the challenges posed by climate change. Public Awareness: Space-based imagery and data help raise public awareness about climate change by visualizing its impacts, making climate science more accessible to the general population. Policy Support: Data from space technology informs climate policies, supports international climate agreements, and holds nations accountable for their commitments to reduce emissions and address climate change. Innovation: Space technology continues to evolve, with innovations such as miniaturized satellites, CubeSats, and AI-driven data analysis methods, expanding the possibilities for climate monitoring and research. Global Coverage: Space technology, such as Earth-observing satellites, provides global coverage, allowing for the monitoring of climate variables and phenomena across the entire planet, including remote and inaccessible regions. Global Coverage: Long-Term Data Records: Space-based climate monitoring has generated long-term data records, some spanning decades. These records are essential for tracking climate trends, understanding climate change impacts, and making informed decisions. Long-Term Data Records: High Precision and Accuracy: Space-based instruments provide high precision and accuracy in measuring climate variables, ensuring data quality and reliability for climate research and modeling. High Precision and Accuracy: Real-Time Monitoring: Geostationary satellites offer real-time monitoring of weather patterns and extreme events, enabling timely warnings and responses to natural disasters exacerbated by climate change. Real-Time Monitoring: Enhanced Climate Models: Space data is integrated into climate models to improve their accuracy and predictability, aiding in understanding complex climate processes and projecting future climate scenarios. Enhanced Climate Models: Data Continuity: Space agencies and organizations are committed to ensuring data continuity, allowing for the seamless transition between old and new satellites, and maintaining consistent data records. Data Continuity: Technological Advancements: Advances in space technology continue to enhance the capabilities of Earth-observing satellites, enabling the collection of more diverse and precise climate data. Technological Advancements: Climate Adaptation and Mitigation: Space technology supports climate adaptation efforts by providing data for better-informed decisions in sectors like agriculture, water resources, and disaster management. It also aids in monitoring and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. Climate Adaptation and Mitigation: Global Collaboration: Climate change is a global issue, and space agencies worldwide collaborate on climate research and monitoring, fostering international cooperation in addressing the challenges posed by climate change. Global Collaboration: Public Awareness: Space-based imagery and data help raise public awareness about climate change by visualizing its impacts, making climate science more accessible to the general population. Public Awareness: Policy Support: Data from space technology informs climate policies, supports international climate agreements, and holds nations accountable for their commitments to reduce emissions and address climate change. Policy Support: Innovation: Space technology continues to evolve, with innovations such as miniaturized satellites, CubeSats, and AI-driven data analysis methods, expanding the possibilities for climate monitoring and research. Innovation: Thus, the prospects of using space technology for climate-related purposes are bright, with ongoing advancements, international collaboration, and data-driven insights playing a crucial role in addressing the complex challenges of climate change and promoting climate action. References Kovalev, I.V., Kovalev, D.I., Kovalev, R.B., Beshimov, Y.S., & Efa, S.G. (2023). Space Technologies for the Sustainable Development of the Transport Infrastructure of the Arctic Territories. Transportation Research Procedia, 68, 796–801. 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Exploring space geodetic technology for physical coastal vulnerability index and management strategies: A review. Ocean & Coastal Management, 214. Kua, J., Arora, C., Loke, S.W., Fernando, N., & Ranaweera, C. (2021). Internet of Things in Space: A Review of Opportunities and Challenges from Satellite-Aided Computing to Digitally-Enhanced Space Living. Sensors, 21(23). Gašparović, M., Klobučar, D., & Gašparović, I. (2022). Automatic Forest Degradation Monitoring By Remote Sensing Methods And Copernicus Data. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLIII-B3–2022. Hirschmugl, M., Gallaun, H., Dees, M., Datta, P., Deutscher, J., Koutsias, N., & Schardt, M. (2017). Methods for mapping forest disturbance and degradation from optical earth observation data: A review. Current Forestry Reports, 3(1), 32–45. Rukieh, M., & Koudmani, G.M. (2006). Use of Space Technology for Natural Disaster Detection and Prevention. In International Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software (p. 60). UN. (2020). Report Frontier Technologies to protect the environment and tackle climate change. Geneva. ESA. (2010). ESA’s ICE MISSION. ESA Communications, BR-199, 2nd English edition. Prepared by: R. Francis, M. Drinkwater & M. Davidson. ESA website and materials. NASA website and materials. Kovalev, I.V., Kovalev, D.I., Kovalev, R.B., Beshimov, Y.S., & Efa, S.G. (2023). Space Technologies for the Sustainable Development of the Transport Infrastructure of the Arctic Territories. Transportation Research Procedia, 68, 796–801. Space Technologies for the Sustainable Development of the Transport Infrastructure of the Arctic Territories Transportation Research Procedia, 68 Jayaraman, V., Chandrasekhar, M.G., & Rao, U.R. (1997). Managing the natural disasters from space technology inputs. Acta Astronautica, 40(2–8). Managing the natural disasters from space technology inputs Acta Astronautica, 40 Jayaraman, V., et al. (2020). Remote Sensing for National Development: Implementing Results Achieved in the National Indian Satellite Programme. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 48(10). Remote Sensing for National Development: Implementing Results Achieved in the National Indian Satellite Programme. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Bauer, P., Seboldt, W., & Klimke, M. (1999). Earth weather and climate control: Can space technology contribute? Space Policy. Earth weather and climate control: Can space technology contribute? Space Policy Luo, L., Liu, J., Cigna, F., Evans, D., Hernandez, M., Tapete, D.(2023). Space technology: A powerful tool for safeguarding world heritage. The Innovation, 4(3). Space technology: A powerful tool for safeguarding world heritage. The Innovation, 4 Zhao, B., Liu, Y., & Wang, L. (2023). Evaluation of the Stability of Muddy Coastline Based on Satellite Imagery: A Case Study in the Central Coasts of Jiangsu, China. Remote Sensing, 15(13). Evaluation of the Stability of Muddy Coastline Based on Satellite Imagery: A Case Study in the Central Coasts of Jiangsu, China Remote Sensing, 15 Hamid, A.I.A., Din, A.H.M., Abdullah, N.M., Yusof, N., Hamid, M.R.A., & Shah, A.M. (2021). Exploring space geodetic technology for physical coastal vulnerability index and management strategies: A review. Ocean & Coastal Management, 214. Exploring space geodetic technology for physical coastal vulnerability index and management strategies: A review Ocean & Coastal Management, 214 Kua, J., Arora, C., Loke, S.W., Fernando, N., & Ranaweera, C. (2021). Internet of Things in Space: A Review of Opportunities and Challenges from Satellite-Aided Computing to Digitally-Enhanced Space Living. Sensors, 21(23). Internet of Things in Space: A Review of Opportunities and Challenges from Satellite-Aided Computing to Digitally-Enhanced Space Living Sensors, 21 Gašparović, M., Klobučar, D., & Gašparović, I. (2022). Automatic Forest Degradation Monitoring By Remote Sensing Methods And Copernicus Data. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLIII-B3–2022. Automatic Forest Degradation Monitoring By Remote Sensing Methods And Copernicus Data The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLIII-B3–2022 Hirschmugl, M., Gallaun, H., Dees, M., Datta, P., Deutscher, J., Koutsias, N., & Schardt, M. (2017). Methods for mapping forest disturbance and degradation from optical earth observation data: A review. Current Forestry Reports, 3(1), 32–45. Methods for mapping forest disturbance and degradation from optical earth observation data: A review Current Forestry Reports, 3 Rukieh, M., & Koudmani, G.M. (2006). Use of Space Technology for Natural Disaster Detection and Prevention. In International Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software (p. 60). Use of Space Technology for Natural Disaster Detection and Prevention International Congress on Environmental Modelling and Software UN. (2020). Report Frontier Technologies to protect the environment and tackle climate change. Geneva. Report Frontier Technologies to protect the environment and tackle climate change ESA. (2010). ESA’s ICE MISSION. ESA Communications, BR-199, 2nd English edition. Prepared by: R. Francis, M. Drinkwater & M. Davidson. ESA’s ICE MISSION. ESA Communications, BR-199 ESA Communications, BR-199 , 2nd English edition ESA website and materials. ESA website NASA website and materials. 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