Table of Links Abstract and 1. Introduction Abstract and 1. Introduction 2 Concepts in Pretraining Data and Quantifying Frequency 2 Concepts in Pretraining Data and Quantifying Frequency 3 Comparing Pretraining Frequency & “Zero-Shot” Performance and 3.1 Experimental Setup 3 Comparing Pretraining Frequency & “Zero-Shot” Performance and 3.1 Experimental Setup 3.2 Result: Pretraining Frequency is Predictive of “Zero-Shot” Performance 3.2 Result: Pretraining Frequency is Predictive of “Zero-Shot” Performance 4 Stress-Testing the Concept Frequency-Performance Scaling Trend and 4.1 Controlling for Similar Samples in Pretraining and Downstream Data 4 Stress-Testing the Concept Frequency-Performance Scaling Trend and 4.1 Controlling for Similar Samples in Pretraining and Downstream Data 4.2 Testing Generalization to Purely Synthetic Concept and Data Distributions 4.2 Testing Generalization to Purely Synthetic Concept and Data Distributions 5 Additional Insights from Pretraining Concept Frequencies 5 Additional Insights from Pretraining Concept Frequencies 6 Testing the Tail: Let It Wag! 6 Testing the Tail: Let It Wag! 7 Related Work 7 Related Work 8 Conclusions and Open Problems, Acknowledgements, and References 8 Conclusions and Open Problems, Acknowledgements, and References Part I Part I Appendix Appendix A. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance Across Prompting Strategies A. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance Across Prompting Strategies B. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance Across Retrieval Metrics B. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance Across Retrieval Metrics C. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance for T2I Models C. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance for T2I Models D. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance across Concepts only from Image and Text Domains D. Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance across Concepts only from Image and Text Domains E. Experimental Details E. Experimental Details F. Why and How Do We Use RAM++? F. Why and How Do We Use RAM++? G. Details about Misalignment Degree Results G. Details about Misalignment Degree Results H. T2I Models: Evaluation H. T2I Models: Evaluation I. Classification Results: Let It Wag! I. Classification Results: Let It Wag! A Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance Across Prompting Strategies We extend the zero-shot classification results from Fig. 2 in Fig. 8 with two different prompting strategies: the results in the main paper used the {classname} only as the prompts, here we showcase both (1) “A photo of a {classname}” prompting and (2) 80 prompt ensembles as used by Radford et al [91]. We observe that the strong log-linear trend between concept frequency and zero-shot performance consistently holds across different prompting strategies. the strong log-linear trend between concept frequency and zero-shot performance consistently holds across different prompting strategies. the strong log-linear trend between concept frequency and zero-shot performance consistently holds across different prompting strategies. B Concept Frequency is Predictive of Performance Across Retrieval Metrics We supplement Fig. 2 in the main paper, where we showed results with the text-to-image (I2T) recall@10 metric. In Figs. 9 and 10, we present results for the retrieval experiments across all six metrics: I2T-Recall@1, I2T-Recall@5, I2T-Recall@10, T2I-Recall@1, T2I-Recall@5, T2I-Recall@10. We observe that the strong log-linear trend between concept frequency and zero-shot performance robustly holds across different retrieval metrics. the strong log-linear trend between concept frequency and zero-shot performance robustly holds across different retrieval metrics. the strong log-linear trend between concept frequency and zero-shot performance robustly holds across different retrieval metrics. Authors:
(1) Vishaal Udandarao, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen, University of Cambridge, and equal contribution;
(2) Ameya Prabhu, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen, University of Oxford, and equal contribution;
(3) Adhiraj Ghosh, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen;
(4) Yash Sharma, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen;
(5) Philip H.S. Torr, University of Oxford;
(6) Adel Bibi, University of Oxford;
(7) Samuel Albanie, University of Cambridge and equal advising, order decided by a coin flip;
(8) Matthias Bethge, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen and equal advising, order decided by a coin flip. Authors: Authors: (1) Vishaal Udandarao, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen, University of Cambridge, and equal contribution; (2) Ameya Prabhu, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen, University of Oxford, and equal contribution; (3) Adhiraj Ghosh, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen; (4) Yash Sharma, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen; (5) Philip H.S. Torr, University of Oxford; (6) Adel Bibi, University of Oxford; (7) Samuel Albanie, University of Cambridge and equal advising, order decided by a coin flip; (8) Matthias Bethge, Tubingen AI Center, University of Tubingen and equal advising, order decided by a coin flip. This paper is available on arxiv under CC BY 4.0 DEED license. This paper is available on arxiv under CC BY 4.0 DEED license. available on arxiv available on arxiv

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Across Metrics and Prompts, Frequent Concepts Outperform in Zero-Shot Learning

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