When we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression that we put into our words and sentences

Business English: A Practice Book by Rose Buhlig is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here. PUNCTUATION

PUNCTUATION

When we speak, we make our meaning clear by the expression that we put into our words and sentences. Some sentences we say all in one breath and with not much change in emphasis from one word to the next. We may be pretty sure that such a sentence is short and simple, with all its elements arranged in their natural order. In this respect compare the sentences given below.

Notice that the following sentence is spoken as one word group:

Steam and electricity are making one commercial community of all nations.

A part that is subordinate in idea is subordinate in tone; as,

Steam and electricity, which are the greatest of all discoveries, are making one commercial community of all nations.

In the usual order of the sentence the subject comes first. Sometimes for emphasis a participial phrase or an adverbial clause precedes the subject. Such inversion is always indicated; as,

If the grape crop is large, the price of grapes is low.

Sometimes a word or phrase is thrust into the sentence to give clearness or force; as,

If, on the other hand, the season is poor, the price of grapes is high.

What, then, determines the price of grapes?

We cannot become good speakers until we learn to subordinate in tone those groups of words that are subordinate in idea, and to bring out clearly those groups which, for one reason or another, are emphatic. The same thing is true in music. We cannot become good musicians until we learn phrasing; that is, until we learn to group the notes to form distinct musical ideas. But when we write our thoughts, we cannot indicate the tone in which the words are spoken. We must show in some other way which groups of words belong together, which are important, and which are subordinate in idea. For this purpose punctuation marks have been invented. When we write, we unconsciously speak the thoughts to ourselves; we hear the divisions between the parts of ideas; and, if we understand punctuation, we indicate the divisions.

Questions

1. Why in writing and printing do we separate one word from the next? In ancient writing this was not done.

   
   

2. Why do we separate one sentence from the next?

   
   

3. We use punctuation marks for the same reason. Explain.

   
   

4. The word to keep in mind in punctuation is separate. If two words belong together in idea, the two making one idea, allow them to stand unseparated. If they give two ideas, separate them by a mark of punctuation. What is the difference in thought in the two sentences that follow?

   
   

(a) She is a pretty, energetic girl.

(b) She is a pretty energetic girl.

Exercise 166—The Apostrophe (')

The apostrophe (') is used—

1. To show the possessive case of nouns (See Exercise 82); as,

   
   

The boy's writing is excellent.

2. To indicate the omission of one or more letters; as,

   
   

I'll attend to the matter.

3. To show the plural of letters, figures, and words that usually have no plural; as,

Your 3's are too much like your 5's, your a's like your u's.

Don't use so many and's.

Write sentences in each of which you use one of the following words correctly:

Explain why the apostrophe is used in the following:

1. I've received no reply.

   
   

2. This month's sales exceed last month's by one thousand dollars.

   
   

3. Politics doesn't affect the matter very much.

   
   

4. The mistake was caused by his making his 7's like his 9's.

   
   

5. Have you received the treasurer's report? No, I haven't.

   
   

Point out the mistakes in the following:

1. For sale, A ladies fur coat.

   
   

2. The boy's have gone skating.

   
   

3. We wo'nt worry over the political situation.

   
   

4. Lets decide now where were to spend our vacation.

   
   

5. Dot your is and not your us.

   
   

6. Is this book your's or her's?

   
   

Exercise 167—Capitals

Capitals are used for—

1. The first word of every sentence.

   
   

2. The first word of every line of poetry.

   
   

3. The first word of a quotation (See Exercise 169).

   
   

4. The first word of a formal statement or resolution; as,

   
   

Resolved, That women shall be given the right to vote.

5. The first word of every group of words paragraphed separately in an itemized list, as in an order for merchandise.

   
   

6. The pronoun I and the interjection O (not oh).

   
   

7. The words Bible and Scripture, the books of the Bible, all names applied to the Deity, and all personal pronouns referring to Him.

   
   

8. All proper nouns, proper adjectives, and words that are considered proper nouns; as,

   
   

a. Names of the days of the week, holidays, and months of the year, but not names of the seasons.

b. North, South, etc., when they refer to sections of the country, but not when they refer to a direction or a point of the compass.

c. Official titles or titles of honor when they are used in connection with names, but not when they are used without names; as,

Vice-President Roosevelt, ex-President Roosevelt.
Nominations are now in order for vice-president.

d. Names of political parties.

e. Names of religious sects.

f. Names of important events or documents; as,

The Revolution, The Declaration of Independence.

g. The salutation in a letter; as,

Dear Sir, Gentlemen.

h. Words indicating relationship, when they are used in connection with a proper name, or when used alone as a name, but not when used with a possessive pronoun; as,

We expect Aunt Ellen at four o'clock.
I expect my mother at four o'clock.

9. The important words in the title of a book, play, or composition. Prepositions, articles, and conjunctions are not capitalized; as,

The Call of the Wild.

10. Such words as Paragraph, Article, or Section, when accompanied with a number; as,

Paragraph 26, Article 3.

11. See Exercise 75.

Exercise 168

The period (.) is used—

1. To indicate the end of a declarative sentence; as,

   
   

The business is prosperous.

2. To indicate an abbreviation; as,

The firm of Clark Bros. has opened a new office at 144 Pleasant St., Erie, Pa.

The interrogation mark (?) is used—

To indicate the end of a sentence that asks a question; as,

When did you order the goods?

The exclamation mark (!) is used—

To indicate the end of a sentence or other expression that shows strong feeling; as,

Such demands are inhuman!

Frequently, all that shows exactly how the writer wished his thought to be understood is the punctuation. The same words may express different ideas according to the mark of punctuation that follows them. Read the following to show the meaning that the writer wished to convey by each. Explain the circumstances under which each might have been spoken.

1. The price is too high.

2. The price is too high!

3. The price is too high?

4. The crop will not be good. There'll be no corn.

5. Corn! There'll be no corn!

6. You didn't tell him that.

7. You didn't tell him that!

8. You didn't tell him that?

9. You are enjoying yourself.

10. You are enjoying yourself?

11. You are enjoying yourself!

    
    

Exercise 169—Quotation Marks (" ")

1. When a speaker's words are quoted exactly, they should be enclosed in quotation marks. This is called a direct quotation.

   
   

He said, "The business is growing."

Notice that the word said is followed by a comma, and that the quotation begins with a capital letter.

2. If the quotation itself is a question, although it forms part of a declarative sentence, it requires an interrogation mark before the quotation mark; as,

   
   

Have you been waiting long? She opened the door and said, "Have you been waiting long?"

3. The same applies to a quotation that requires an exclamation mark; as,

Look!

He cried, "Look!"

4. When the words of explanation follow the quoted words, the punctuation is as follows:

(a) When the quotation is a declarative sentence, put a comma after the quotation and begin the words of explanation with a small letter; as,

"The business is growing," he said.

(b) When the quotation is a question, conclude it with an interrogation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small letter; as,

"Have you been waiting long?" she asked.

(c) When the quotation is an exclamation, conclude it with an exclamation mark, and begin the words of explanation with a small letter; as,

"Look!" he cried.

5. When the author's words of explanation interrupt the speaker's words, the punctuation is as follows:

(a) When the interrupted parts are not naturally separated by any punctuation mark, the comma is used as follows:

I do not believe that the report is true. "I do not believe," he said, "that the report is true."

Notice in what way the quotation marks show that the words he said do not belong to the quoted words.

(b) Whatever mark of punctuation would naturally appear between the interrupted parts must be used; as,

(1) I shall buy the Boston ferns; they seem to require but little care.

"I shall buy the Boston ferns," she said; "they seem to require but little care."

(2) Oh! The flames are higher!

"Oh!" she cried. "The flames are higher!"

4. Division into sentences is made within a quotation just as elsewhere. When the thought ends, the sentence must end. The different sentences, however, must not be divided by quotation marks; as,

   
   

"The train came in," said he, "half an hour ago. I do not see them in the waiting room. I think they did not come."

5. When a quotation is very long, consisting of several paragraphs, quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of the quotation, at the beginning of each succeeding paragraph, and at the end of the quotation—not at the end of each paragraph.

   
   

6. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the one within is distinguished by single marks; as,

John explained, "After I had told Mr. Brown how I thought the work could be done more easily, he said, 'Thank you for your suggestion.'"

7. Any words quoted from a book or article, or any words quoted with a special significance, such as slang, should be enclosed in quotation marks; as,

   
   

The day of the salesman who is satisfied with the "good old way" is fast passing.

8. A formal question, statement, or resolution for a debate is not enclosed in quotation marks; as,

The question we are to discuss is, Shall women vote?

Exercise 170

Punctuate the following, dividing into sentences wherever the sense demands division:

1. Thank you for your suggestion said Mr. Brown

2. Mr. Brown said thank you for your suggestion

3. Thank you said Mr. Brown for your suggestion

4. If you will ask the shipping clerk I volunteered I think you can get definite information

5. How can we enforce the law asked the man

6. The law cried the man how can we enforce the law

7. Tell me said the man how we can enforce the law

8. Tell me this said the man how can we enforce the law

9. The question before us is how can we enforce the law

10. John whispered did you hear his mother say yes you may go

11. As I was walking along the river he continued I heard a voice cry help

12. Halt shouted the captain the bridge is down

13. The captain shouted halt the bridge is down

14. We cannot cross said the captain the bridge is down

15. The bridge is down said the captain and I fear there is no other way to cross

16. Is the bridge down asked the captain does no one know another way to cross

17. The captain said the bridge is down do you know another way to cross

18. What shall we do asked a soldier if the bridge is down

19. Do cried the captain swim that's what we'll do

20. As we were riding along spoke up one of the soldiers I heard a farmer shout you fellows better try the bridge lower down

    
    

Exercise 171—Indirect Discourse

In the preceding exercise we saw different forms of direct quotations, or direct discourse. In each case, the speaker's words were quoted exactly. When the substance of the thought is given in slightly different form, we have an indirect quotation, or indirect discourse, in which no quotation marks are used. An indirect quotation is usually a subordinate clause depending on a word of thinking, saying, telling, or the like. Indirect statements are usually introduced by that, and indirect questions by when, where, why, whether, if, who, which, what, and the like. When a sentence is changed from direct to indirect discourse, the person and usually the tense of the direct quotation are changed; as,

Direct: He said, "I do not believe the report." Indirect: He said that he did not believe the report.

Direct: He said, "Germany is over-populated." Indirect: He said that Germany is over-populated. (See Exercise 107.)

Direct: She said, "I did my work before I went to school." Indirect: She said that she had done her work before she went to school.

Direct: "I have finished my work," said the girl. Indirect: She says that she has finished her work.

Direct: "Why didn't he succeed?" I asked.

Indirect: I asked why he had not succeeded.

Direct: "When may I go?" she inquired.

Indirect: She inquired when she might go.

In the following change the italicized parts to direct quotations. Do not change the paragraphing.

1. The Seal's Lesson

The baby seal said that he could not swim.

His mother answered that he could try.

The little fellow persisted that he could never learn.

His mother looked at him sternly, and said that every seal must learn to swim.

He replied that the water was cold and that he liked the sand better, but because his mother insisted, he slid into the water whimpering.

After he had gone a short distance, he turned around and called out that the water was much pleasanter than the sand.

His mother said that she knew that it would be so. She said that young people must do as they are told because they have not had enough experience to judge for themselves.

2. A Faithful Servant

A certain old time king said that he needed a servant who could be depended upon. He said he knew that such a man is difficult to secure, and in the hope of getting the right one, he would hire two.

When he had engaged them, he took them to a well and, showing them a large basket, told them to fill it with water. He said that he would return at night to see what they had done.

The men were very much in earnest when they began the work, but, after pouring five or six bucketfuls of water into the basket, one of them stopped and said that he did not see any use in doing that because, as soon as he poured the water in, it ran out again, and his time was lost.

His companion replied that the kind of work that their master gave them was no concern of theirs; that they were paid to do the work; and, whether it seemed useful to them or not, they ought to do it.

The first speaker said that the other man could do as he pleased, but, as for him, he did not expect to waste his time on such foolish work. Throwing his bucket down, he walked off.

The one that was left continued at the work until about sunset, when he had nearly emptied the well. Looking into the basket, he saw something glittering. Stooping to look more closely, he found in the basket a ring of great value which his bucket had scooped up from the mud at the bottom of the well. He said that now he knew why the king had wanted the water poured into the basket.

Shortly afterward, when the king came up with some of his officers and saw the ring in the basket, he knew that the man had obeyed him, and he said that he knew he could trust him, and as a reward for obedience he would make him master over other servants.

Exercise 172—The Paragraph in Dialogue

In conversation the words of each speaker, together with the author's words of explanation, form one paragraph. Whenever the speaker changes, the paragraph changes; as,

"Mimer," boldly said the god Odin to the gray old guardian of the well where wit and wisdom lie hidden, "Mimer, let me drink of the waters of wisdom."

"Truly, Odin," answered Mimer, "it is a great treasure that you seek and one which many have sought before but who, when they knew the price of it, turned back."

Then replied Odin, "I would give my right hand for wisdom willingly."

"Nay," rejoined the remorseless Mimer, "it is not your right hand, but your right eye, you must give."—Keary: The Heroes of Asgard.

However, when one speaker talks at length, what he says is formed into paragraphs according to the divisions into which it falls. (See Chapter XIV.)

When a short quotation is simply part of a paragraph, it is punctuated as follows:

This, however, was of use to me, the impression continuing on my mind. Often when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, "Don't give too much for the whistle," and I saved my money.

Paragraph the following:

1 On the next morning we had gone but a mile or two when we came to an extensive belt of woods, through the midst of which ran a stream, wide, deep, and of an appearance particularly muddy and treacherous. In plunged the cart, but midway it stuck fast. Then approached the long team and heavy wagon of our friends, but it paused on the brink. "Now my advice is,—" began the captain, who had been anxiously contemplating the muddy gulf. "Drive on!" cried R. But Wright, the muleteer, apparently had not as yet decided the point in his own mind. He sat still in his seat on one of the shaft-mules, whistling in a low, contemplative strain to himself. "My advice is," resumed the captain, "that we unload; for I'll bet any man five pounds that if we try to go through, we shall stick fast." "By the powers, we shall stick fast!" echoed Jack, the captain's brother, shaking his large head with an air of conviction. "Drive on! drive on!" petulantly cried R. "Well," observed the captain, turning to us as we sat looking on, "I can only give my advice; and if people won't be reasonable, why, they won't, that's all!"—Parkman: The Oregon Trail.

2 Rebecca walked up the lane and went to the side door. There was a porch there. Seated in a rocking-chair, husking corn, was a good-looking young man. Rebecca was a trifle shy at this encounter, but there was nothing to do except explain her presence; so she asked, "Is the lady of the house at home?." "I am the lady of the house at present," said the stranger with a whimsical smile. "What can I do for you?" "Have you ever heard of the—would you like—er I mean, do you need any soap?" queried Rebecca. "Do I look as if I do?" he responded unexpectedly. Rebecca dimpled. "I didn't mean that; I have some soap to sell; I mean I would like to introduce to you a very remarkable soap, the best now on the market. It is called the—" "Oh! I must know that soap," said the gentleman genially. "Made out of pure vegetable fats, isn't it?" "The very purest," corroborated Rebecca. "No acid in it?" "Not a trace." "And yet a child could do the Monday washing with it and use no force?" "A babe," corrected Rebecca. "Oh! a babe, eh? That child grows younger every year, instead of older—wise child!"—Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm.

Change the following from indirect to direct discourse and paragraph:

When Whittier went on his first fishing trip, it was a day in early summer. The long afternoon shadows lay cool on the grass. The boy said that the flowers seemed brighter and the birds merrier than ever before. When they came to a bend in the river, his uncle said that this was a good place to try. He told the boy to throw out his line as he had seen others do and move it on the surface of the water in imitation of the leap of a frog. The boy did as he was told, but he caught no fish. His uncle said that he should try again. Suddenly the bait sank out of sight, and the boy cried out that he had caught a fish at last. As he spoke, he pulled up a tangle of weeds. His uncle said that he should try again, because fishermen must have patience. In a moment the boy felt something tug at his line, and as he jerked it up, he saw a fine pickerel wriggling in the sun. In uncontrollable excitement he called out to his uncle, telling him to look at the big pickerel. His uncle said that the boy didn't have it yet, and as he spoke there was a splash in the water, and the boy's hook hung empty. His uncle assured him that there were more fish in the river, but the boy would not be comforted. His uncle smiled shrewdly and told Whittier to remember never to brag of catching a fish until it was on dry land. He said that he had seen older people doing that in more ways than one, and so making fools of themselves. He said that it was better not to boast of doing a thing until it was done.

Exercise 173—The Comma (,) Rule 1.—The comma is used to separate a direct quotation from the words of explanation.

For illustration see the foregoing exercises.

Write the following from dictation; then compare your version with the original:

Literature, the ministry, medicine, the law, and other occupations are hindered for want of men to do the work. To test this statement thoroughly you need only hunt up a first-class editor, reporter, business manager, foreman of a shop, mechanic, or artist in any branch of industry and try to hire him. You will find that he is already hired. He is sober, industrious, capable, reliable, and always in demand. He cannot get a day's holiday except by courtesy of his employer, or of his city, or of the great general public. But if you need idlers, shirkers, half-instructed, unambitious, and comfort-seeking editors, reporters, lawyers, doctors, and mechanics apply anywhere.—Mark Twain.

Rule 2.—The comma is used to separate the members of a series.

Exercise 174 Divide the following into sentences and supply the necessary commas:

Abraham Lincoln was a tall strong powerfully built boy he could lift a load cut down a tree or build a fence more quickly than any one else in the neighborhood his perseverance in his boyhood helps us to appreciate the firm true steady hand that guided our country through its great crisis Lincoln unceasingly showed his wise brain his great courage and his kindness of heart his character was not made in a day nor a month nor a year it was built up after years of yearning years of striving and years of hard work.

In the above point out the instances where the comma is used—

1. When several nouns follow one another, all being in the same case.
2. When several adjectives follow one another, all modifying the same noun.
3. When a succession of phrases modifies the same noun.

This kind of succession is called a series. Each new member gives a new idea, the comma being used to help the reader to separate one from the next with ease. Notice that the comma is used between the last two members before the coördinate conjunction as well as between the other members.

2

Dear Sir:

You can make no mistake in buying BCL Power Co. bonds now the company supplies power to mines and towns of Colorado Utah and Idaho it furnishes electric light and power to Ophir Ouray Ames Pandora and other towns in Colorado in Utah it supplies light to Mescal Eureka Provo Logan and Bingham it also furnishes power for the street railway systems of Salt Lake City Farmington and Ogden.

The bonds offer such good security good interest and ready convertibility that we expect our allotment to be heavily oversubscribed will you therefore send us your order before Monday

Yours truly,

3 Imagine the scene: a little hollow in the prairie forming a perfect amphitheater the yellow grass and wild oats grazed short a herd of horses staring from the slope I myself standing in the middle like a ring-master in a circus and this wonderful horse performing at his own free will. He trotted powerfully he galloped gracefully he thundered at full speed he lifted forelegs to welcome he flung out hind legs to repel he leaped as if springing over bayonets he pranced and curvetted as if he were the pretty plaything of a girl and finally he trotted up and snuffed about me—just out of reach.

4

Dear Madam:

Our Style Book shows you the best of the season's styles for ladies misses and children it contains illustrations of the latest kinds of long coats of skirts in the most fashionable cuts and materials of hats that are new and particularly becoming and of dresses with the newest sleeves and collars we are especially sure that you will like our waists they are artistic in design stylish in cut and excellent in workmanship they are selected from the leading fashion centers are the creations of the best costumers and always have individuality twenty years of selling goods by mail have given us experience skill and knowledge that make it certain we can please you.

The enclosed coupon is good for fifty cents on a five dollar order one dollar and twenty-five cents on a ten dollar order and two dollars on an order for fifteen dollars or more this offer expires September 30.

Yours truly,

5 Increased wages shorter hours and perhaps lower efficiency for the hours worked have done more to raise the cost of living than almost anything else this higher cost of production we see on the farm in the factory in transportation in merchandising and even in domestic service we cannot double the cost of excavating brick-laying plumbing and decorating and expect not to double the rents that we must pay the cost of building has increased as the demands of laborers increased as their hours of work decreased and as their wages advanced the materials that go into a building the transportation of that material the labor of assembling it and the labor of fashioning it into a building have all advanced in price.

Moreover, high living has a great deal to do with the high cost of living because it has made most of us think that we must have more conveniences more luxuries more clothes and more amusements than our fathers had with a return to the thrift of our fathers with a return to their desire for work we shall no longer feel the grip of the high cost of living there is a real danger to our nation in our extravagance in our indifference to cost in our sweep toward ease and idleness and in our growing antipathy for work.

Exercise 175

Write five sentences illustrating series of words; five illustrating series of phrases; and five illustrating series of clauses.

Exercise 176

Write the following from dictation:

1 The Government's Laundry Some of the paper money in circulation is so dirty that one feels the need of gloves in handling it, and the suspicion that it is germ laden might well be verified. It has often been said that money spreads contagious diseases, nor can such a statement be questioned when one remembers that money goes into every kind of home and is handled by many infected persons. The government has long felt that something should be done to lessen this means of spreading disease, and a machine has finally been invented that will wash and iron the dirtiest bills until they look almost as fresh as new ones. The entire cost of operating the device is hardly fifty cents for each thousand bills, but it is estimated that it will save the government as much as a million dollars a year.

2 Luck and Labor Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up; labor with keen eyes and strong will turns something up. Luck lies in bed and wishes the postman would bring him news of a fortune; labor turns out at six o'clock and with busy pen or ringing hammer lays the foundation of a competence. Luck whines; labor whistles. Luck relies on chance; labor on character.—Cobden.

The selections given above illustrate the compound sentence. Notice the thought expressed in these sentences. There is usually an idea of balance or contrast, and the two halves of the sentence express the two halves of the idea. The two members are usually distinct enough to require a comma before the conjunction. If the conjunction is omitted, a semicolon must separate the two members, as in the second selection above.

Rule 3.—The comma is used before the coördinate conjunction in a compound sentence. If the conjunction is omitted, a semicolon must be used.

Exercise 177

Separate the following into compound sentences and punctuate:

1 Sawdust as a fire extinguisher sounds absurd but recent experiments in Boston have proved it to be successful in quenching fires in tanks of oil and other inflammable liquids the Boston experiments were conducted with tanks of burning varnish but the same principles seem to apply to tanks of burning oil the floating sawdust forms a blanket that shuts off the air from the flames and the lack of oxygen causes the fire to die out the experiments were tried with both wet and dry sawdust and the dry material seemed to extinguish the fire as quickly as the wet.

2 Select the kind of business that suits your natural inclination and temperament some men are naturally mechanics others have a strong aversion to machinery because they do not understand it some men are imaginative others are purely practical some prefer active work others like sedentary employment all should select those occupations that suit them best.

3 Certain Western railroads have long felt the need of a new material for sleepers and they have been experimenting for some time past with cocobolo or Japanese oak the wood is so hard that it is almost impossible to drive spikes into it and screwed spikes in bored holes are used these sleepers will cost a trifle more than those made from American oak but they are expected to last twenty-five or thirty years the reason for experimenting with foreign woods is that native oak is becoming scarce and it is deemed wise to search in time for a substitute.

4 Dear Sir: We wrote you on the third but as yet no word has come of your decision in regard to the investment you were considering at 475 Second Avenue let us have your order and we shall at once prepare the contract of sale the building is an especially attractive offering at $9,500 and we feel sure that you will find the return from it unusually large.

Yours very truly,

Exercise 178 When an adverbial clause or a participial adjective phrase is put at the beginning of a sentence to secure emphasis, it is called an initial clause or participial phrase. A comma separates it from the independent clause to help the reader to see where the subordinate idea ends and where the main idea begins. Rewrite the following from dictation, noticing the punctuation of initial elements:

If a city is to be kept in good condition, every citizen must pay his share of the expense. If the dreadful epidemics are to be exterminated, there must be a good board of health to see that everything is kept sanitary. When the health officers do their work well, the health of the city improves. In order that the decrees of the health department and of the courts may be enforced, there must be a good police department. Besides having these advantages, cities need good streets and good schools. Because all of these good things cost a great deal of money, high taxes must be levied to pay for them.

Rule 4.—An initial clause or participial phrase must be set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

Exercise 179

Punctuate the following:

1 Although cotton seed used to be considered worse than rubbish there now come from it every year millions of dollars in profit. Formerly if it was not hauled away to rot it was usually dumped into a neighboring stream and there it did much harm even if we had the space it would be impossible to explain all the products now made from the seed paper and an excellent meal for cattle may be made from the hulls but the most important products are made from the kernels besides making meal for cattle they are readily converted into crude oil according to the degree of refining that it receives this oil may appear as oil for miner's lamps lard compounds or salad oils as an illustration of the way in which modern manufacturers utilize former waste products the cotton seed is supreme.

2 When you sell your old clothes to the ragman do you know that they come back to you as writing paper because the metal buttons buckles and hooks that are often left on the garments cannot be converted into paper they used to be a source of annoyance to the papermaker although the cloth sorters tried to remove them before the garments went into the pulp vats some were overlooked if any found their way into the pulp they tore holes in the paper and often damaged the rollers in order that such danger may be avoided the pulp is now passed through a series of magnetized rakes as the rakes are passed to and fro every bit of metal clings to them when a quantity of such bits of iron is collected it is sent to the foundry to return to us in many new forms.

3 Dear Sir: Investigating your complaint of the fifth instant we found that the furniture which you ordered on the tenth of last month left our factory on the fifteenth if all had gone well you would have received the articles on or about the twentieth as you surmised the delay in the arrival of the goods is due to a mistake on the part of the railroad company although the goods were properly billed to you they were allowed to go on to Columbus if you do not receive them within ten days' time let us hear from you again.

Yours truly,

4 Dear Sir: Complying with your request of the 10th inst. I am sending you particulars of the property which I wish to sell as I told you when I was in your office last week the price at which I am holding the building is $20,000 if the buyer prefers not to assume the mortgage of $10,000 I think I can get the mortgagee to agree to accept present payment for the note that he holds against me unless the buyer agrees to pay the unpaid taxes for last year and the assessments levied for improvements already made I shall not consider a sale.

After all preliminary arrangements are made if you will prepare a contract of sale and forward it to me I will have the abstract brought down to date and secured by a guaranty policy.

Since I presume that the prospective purchaser has examined the property and is satisfied to pay the price for it in its present condition I would suggest that you do nothing more toward securing bids for rebuilding the porches.

Yours very truly,

Exercise 180 Write five sentences containing initial participial phrases.

Write five sentences containing initial adverbial clauses.

Exercise 181 The comma is used to separate the month from the year, the city from the county or state, the company from the place in which it is operated, or the like; as,

In December, 1912, I wrote to you from Seattle, Washington.

This use of the comma indicates that words have been omitted, the sentence above really meaning,

In December of the year 1912 I wrote to you from Seattle in the state of Washington.

The same use is shown in such sentences as,

Of the three stenographers Mary received fifteen dollars a week; Ellen, twelve; Susan, ten.

Rule 5.—The comma is used to indicate the omission of words.

Supply the necessary commas in the following:

1. The bonds will be taken over on or before October 1 1934.
2. On January 1 1913 the company had outstanding $4,000,000 of stock of the par value of one dollar a share.
3. The offices are at Salt Lake City Utah.
4. The transaction was officially conducted between the Power Bond & Share Co. New York and the Pacific Power Co. Tacoma Washington.
5. A late announcement of the Census Bureau tells us that the center of population of the United States is four and one-quarter miles south of Unionville Monroe County Indiana.
6. Many mechanical devices in common use may be traced to the patterns furnished by nature. Thus the hog suggests the plow; the butterfly the ordinary hinge; the toadstool the umbrella; the duck the ship; the fungus growth on trees the bracket.
7. The per capita saving in the banks of the United States in 1820 was twelve cents; in 1830 fifty-four cents; in 1840 eighty-two cents; in 1850 $1.87; in 1860 $4.75; in 1870 $14.26; in 1880 $16.33; in 1890 $24.75; in 1900 $31.78; in 1910 $45.05; and it is still increasing.
8. The population in 1820 was 10,000,000 and in 1910 90,000,000.
9. Mexico draws about 55% of her imports from the United States; Nicaragua about 50%; the other Central American states from 35 to 75%; Venezuela 31%; Cuba 52%.
10. In one decade Germany's exports to Latin-America have shown an increase of 222%; those of the United Kingdom an increase of 115%; and those of the United States an increase of 130%.

Write five sentences illustrating Rule 5.

Exercise 182—Explanatory Expressions There are a number of expressions—words, phrases, and clauses—which are inserted into the sentence for clearness or emphasis. They add a bit of explanation but are not absolutely necessary. In other words, they might be omitted, and the sentence would still be clear. These may be of various kinds but are all similar in use. They should be set off by commas so that the reader will easily see that they are subordinate to the main idea of the sentence.

A. The appositive is a word or a group of words inserted lo explain the noun that it follows. (See Exercise 80.)

Explain the use of the commas in the following sentences:

1. William E. Curtis, one of the world's ablest newspaper correspondents, in his will expressed the hope that his grandson would continue his life-work, a recital of the good that men had done and not of the crimes they had committed.
2. The new device, the adding machine, has greatly lessened office drudgery.
3. Wall street, the great center of business life, fixes stock prices.
4. The people in moderate circumstances, the excellent middle class of a country, suffer most from the strain of high prices.
5. The Montreal Tramways Company, the first company to introduce pay-as-you-enter cars, started its business in the winter of 1861 with a very simple equipment, two horse-drawn sleighs.
6. The Early Gem musk melon, one of the best shipping melons grown, is a cross between the Rocky Ford and the Emerald Green varieties.
7. In making up our collections and bargain offers for this year, we have arranged to put up a "Surprise Box," one hundred packages of selected vegetable and flower seeds.
8. The Chinese Giant, a new variety of sweet pepper, produces branching plants about two feet in height.
9. Amundsen, the discoverer of the south pole, is a native of Norway.

Rule 6.—The comma is used to separate an appositive from the rest of the sentence.

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the comma to set off an appositive.

Exercise 183—Explanatory Expressions Similar in use to appositives are—

B. Words, phrases, or clauses that separate the subject from the predicate verb, the verb from its object, or the like.

In the natural order of the sentence the verb immediately follows the subject and the object follows the verb. When, for the purpose of explanation, something is inserted between the two, it should be set off from the rest of the sentence by commas. Words that are thus inserted are called appositive or parenthetical expressions and are illustrated in the following:

In Ohio and Kentucky enterprising individuals, evidently taking the suggestion from the popular rural delivery service, have established ice cream routes. Ice cream wagons travel the country roads at stated times so that, with no more trouble than is required to answer the postman's whistle, dwellers on the farms can now secure the hot weather luxury at reasonable prices. The plan, so far as one can tell from present indications, gives promise of meeting with great success.

Rule 7.—Parenthetical expressions should be set off by commas.

Punctuate the following:

1 The politics of the city as well as those of the nation must be kept clean. The most intelligent men of the community not the least intelligent should make our political speeches and be our political leaders. The very opposite we must confess is what we see too often. Many business men steadily pursuing their own ends during the day feel that they cannot devote time to politics. We need not search far to discover that too many of them even if they have the time do not care to give it. At election the most influential business and professional men either through lack of interest or through laziness stay at home instead of going to the polls. The men who are elected in nine cases out of ten are not fit to hold office. The blame belongs every one will agree to those who do not vote.

2 England as most people know is becoming vastly interested in the production of cotton in the Soudan. This state of affairs for more reasons than one is a matter of interest to the American manufacturer as well as to the American cotton planter. Egyptian cotton ranking next to our own sea-island in length and strength of fiber is wanted because of the brilliant finish it gives. For the manufacture of fine goods including sateens India linens and mercerized goods as well as for mixing with silk it has been found very valuable. Cotton growers expect that the enlargement of the Assouan dam will eventually redeem about a million acres from the desert in Lower Egypt and although not more than half will probably be planted to cotton it will increase Egypt's output about twenty-five per cent. Our Department of Agriculture after having experimented for years has developed and acclimated in California a variety of Egyptian cotton superior several experts say to the real Egyptian. It now rests with the planters any one can see to decide whether American manufacturers will get their fine cotton at home or abroad.—The Wall Street Journal.

3 For several reasons some of them certainly unworthy people on both sides of the Atlantic are talking of the perils of a "yellow" invasion. It is true that in the past various invasions have been attended with evil but civilization has passed on into an age when migrations even the mightiest that the world has seen are taking place silently and steadily for the good of all. There is no reason to suppose that the overflow and interflow of nations heretofore synonymous with the progress of humanity should bring to us anything but good. Commerce is to lead the van in the new movement of the nations as it has in the past and the merchant consciously or unconsciously is going to anticipate and guide the statesman.—The Commercial and Financial Chronicle.

4 The prevailing spirit at least among a certain class of young business men seems to be that the saving of little things in the course of the day consumes time entirely out of proportion to the value of the things saved but like all general rules it is carried too far by young men who could hardly employ their time to better advantage than in saving good though minor materials that would otherwise be lost. The man who originated the idea probably found it correct for himself but like all principles catering to indifference regarding details the idea is too readily adopted by many young men who can ill afford its practice. No one wishes a man to be parsimonious but he should not allow anything to be wasted which can with a reasonable exercise of effort be saved.

Exercise 184—Explanatory Expressions C. Independent elements are words, phrases, or clauses that have no direct grammatical relation with any other word in the sentence. They are really a kind of parenthetical expression, but have less connection with the sentence than those given under B.

The following is an argument against the trusts. The italicized expressions are independent elements. What different kinds do you discover?

Gentlemen, the big problem before us to-day, therefore, is the trusts. Shall the people control the trusts, or shall the trusts control the people? To state the question differently, shall we all continue to keep a voice in government, or shall we turn our power over into the hands of a few and let their word be law? This centralizing of power, by the way, was the evil men tried to remedy by forming republics, and shall we Americans, do you think, be willing to sacrifice all that has been gained for us of liberty? The answer being self-evident, let us proceed. It seems that the little violator of law can be punished; the big violator cannot be, or, at any rate, is not punished. The trusts, most people know, are formed to destroy competition. Their reason for destroying competition, evidently, is to swell profits by charging all that the trade will bear. The trust, finally, is not a method of doing business, but a scheme for levying tribute.

Rule 8.—Independent elements are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Punctuate the following:

1 New York, May 12, 19—. Mr. Thomas R. Stevenson, 5010 Prospect Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. Dear Sir: You are no doubt now planning your summer vacation before you make any new plans however consider the opportunity that we are offering you to see a new and marvelously beautiful world for little more very likely than the cost of an ordinary vacation at the summer hotel to which you usually go.

The idea of summer travel in the Tropics it may be is new to you comparatively few people unfortunately have yet awakened to its possibilities they do not realize at least not fully that the climate in Jamaica Panama and the Central and South American countries is practically the same throughout the year moreover the transportation rates are much lower than they are in the North and the incidental expenses of travel such as carriage fare and the cost of curios are considerably less rough weather too is almost unknown in the summer.

Possibly as you live on the shores of Lake Michigan you have been considering a week's cruise of the great lakes at an expense certainly of $40 or more and along coasts that you have seen doubtless many times before we offer a number of trips varying in length from twelve to twenty-four days and in cost from $50 to $130 to Jamaica Panama and Central and South America thus for ten dollars more you may sail twice as long pass shores much more beautiful visit cities far more strange and return with a new almost magical store of memories.

You are wondering perhaps how it is that we can offer these remarkably low rates the reason briefly told is that our ships carry an exceptionally large amount of freight however do not think merely because our ships carry freight that they are not splendidly equipped for passenger travel on the other hand they are so luxuriously furnished that they are especially fitted for tropical cruises you are missing an unusual opportunity we assure you if you do not more fully investigate our offer.

Yours very truly,

2 We are learning year by year that as a rule financial independence cannot be secured by most men except by saving the savings bank is of course the first place to invest savings because it will receive small sums and pay an interest on them when a man's savings however have reached $1000 for example what shall he do with his money he has not the time or the knowledge probably to watch his investments he wishes therefore to put his money where it will be safe where it will earn a fair rate of interest and if possible where he can on short notice convert it into cash.

3 A man is an investor usually at least by virtue of his savings a woman on the other hand invests because she has received a legacy this may take the form of course of property securities cash or life insurance it is the function of sound investment most people know to surround funds of this nature with strong security the selection of conservative investments it is evident must be made with care those companies naturally that deal in conservative securities are the ones a prospective investor should consult.

4 Not long ago the editor of a financial journal received a letter of inquiry from a woman she had she said only two thousand dollars if she invested it as some of her friends had advised her to do in a well-known security she could not live on the proceeds she had consequently made a connection with a brokerage house and was making a living by buying and selling speculative stocks her list by the way showed a profit of $500 in four months what she wanted to know of course was how she could make the gain a second time in effect she was told to take her profits and run as fast as she could she will not in all probability take the advice and in a few months possibly weeks she will write again for help in rescuing her last few hundred dollars she will have learned at last that the way to keep her money is to save it but she will not by that time in all likelihood have any money to save.

Exercise 185—Explanatory Expressions

D. The explanatory relative clause.

Similar to the appositive is the explanatory relative clause. Like an appositive, it is inserted into the sentence for the purpose of explanation and is separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Because of this similarity, it is sometimes called an appositive relative clause.

Great care must be taken in punctuation to distinguish a clause that may be omitted from the sentence without destroying the meaning from one that may not be omitted. The appositive clause may be omitted. A restrictive clause, because it restricts the meaning of the word it modifies, may not be omitted. Because it is needed for the sake of clearness, it is not separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. To distinguish an appositive clause from a restrictive clause, the former is called a non-restrictive clause.

Notice the difference between the following:

1. The Commonwealth Edison Company, which controls the electric light and power supply of Chicago, was organized in 1907 by the consolidation of the Chicago Edison Company and the Commonwealth Electric Company.

   
   

The sentence makes complete sense without the relative clause.

2. The concern that controls the electric light and power supply of Chicago is the Commonwealth Edison Company.

The relative clause must be used to understand the sentence.

In (1) the relative clause gives an additional idea. In (2) it limits or restricts the meaning of the concern. The non-restrictive clause is shown in (1), the restrictive clause in (2).

Dictation to illustrate non-restrictive clauses:

It is estimated that Chicago annually uses 93,450,000 gallons of milk, for which it pays over $28,000,000. To supply this amount 120,000 cows are needed, which are owned by 12,000 dairy farms. Health officers conduct a systematic dairy farm inspection, which has for its purpose the exclusion of diseased milk. Farm owners, who formerly objected to the inspection, now see that cleanliness is profitable. Authorities have discovered that milk, which easily absorbs germs, is dangerous except when produced under sanitary conditions, and now dairies are allowed to sell only clean, pure milk, which is milk given by a healthy cow.

Phrases as well as clauses may be restrictive. In the following sentences decide whether the italicized expressions are restrictive or non-restrictive. State whether they are phrases or clauses. Do any of the sentences need commas?

1. The man wearing the brown coat is my brother.
2. My brother bought a new coat which is brown.
3. The lesson that I take at nine o'clock is English.
4. In English which I take at nine o'clock we are studying punctuation.
5. I am going to work in every city that I visit.
6. I am going to work in any city where I can find employment.
7. I am going to work in Denver where my uncle lives.
8. The house on the hill is the oldest in town.
9. The house that is the oldest in town is used as a museum.
10. The Franklin Museum which occupies the oldest house in town is a very interesting place.
11. The town museum is the place that I like to visit.
12. The chimney that was blown down last night in the storm should have been mended long ago.
13. The old ruined tower which has long been a picturesque sight in the village was blown down last night.
14. We counted ten chimneys that were blown down last night.
15. The stenography system that I studied is Munson's.
16. I think she uses Munson's which she considers a good system of stenography.
17. Last year I pursued a course in stenography which I enjoyed very much.
18. The book that we use in class has a brown cover.
19. The only milk that is fit to drink comes from a clean dairy.
20. Systematic inspection has been carried on which has resulted in securing better milk.

Rule 9.—A non-restrictive clause should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Exercise 186 Punctuate the following:

1. We have an enormous crop of cotton the value of which is estimated at one billion dollars.
2. "The root of the mail order evil is the idea which the retail mail order houses have been able somehow to instill into the minds of the buying public that the local merchants ask too much for their goods."
3. Mr. Hilton who was sales manager at that time induced the company to adopt this system.
4. The lecture will be delivered by Mr. Brenton who is the head of the advertising department of Whitlock & Co.
5. Our dog whose fur was wet by his plunge into the lake came running toward us.
6. Genevieve who had always been the leader in the games was not present.
7. A late product of the brain of George Westinghouse who was the inventor of the air brake and numerous electrical devices is an air spring for automobiles. This little article has been patented by Mr. Westinghouse who has the sole ownership. The spring which has already proved popular with automobile owners fits over the end of the regular spring and "makes good roads out of bad ones."
8. Careful selection of investments upon which the safety of your money depends is often difficult. Careful watching of investments which is fully as essential is much harder. Let us tell you about our Investment Service which does this watching for you and keeps you fully protected.
9. As a direct result of the conference between the railroad and steamship interests of the South-Atlantic and Gulf cotton ports which was held recently at Hot Springs Va. an organization which will be known as the South Atlantic and Steamship Cotton Inspection Bureau has been created. The bureau will have a chief inspector who will supervise the conduct of its business at all ports and will arrange for the employment of the inspectors. According to the rules and regulations copies of which have been received by the cotton agencies and the export departments of the various New Orleans firms any bale that shows external damage from water mud bad bagging or other causes must be condemned and its condition noted and reported.
10. How would you like to wear a hat that has been handed down through six generations in each of which it was a treasured possession? The Italian peasants who love finery are proud to do that very thing. Very few of the poorer people who live in Italy own a hat. When you see a beautifully woven Leghorn hat which is also very dirty on the head of a little peasant child you may be pretty sure that she is celebrating her birthday by wearing the family heirloom. These hats which are sometimes willed to a favorite relative and which in some instances go the round of the family are considered almost priceless. It is a frequent sight along the dusty roads outside the little towns to see untidy old women who are sauntering along twisting twine as they go all vanity under the flopping brim of an antiquated hat. This is almost the only souvenir that tourists' money cannot buy.—The Chicago Tribune.

Exercise 187—Explanatory Expressions E. When the subordinate element that comes at or near the close of the sentence gives an additional idea, following the more or less complete idea in the rest of the sentence, it should be set off by a comma; as,

A signature clerk will easily recognize any alteration in a signature, although thousands of checks pass through his hands daily.

He gave a statement of the affairs of the company, explaining that he wished to make a loan.

Rule 10.—A terminal adverbial clause or participial phrase giving an additional idea should be set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.

Punctuate the following:

1. Popular-priced goods are the safest for a retail stock however you consider the subject.
2. A sheriff seldom finds large quantities of popular-priced goods on hand when he comes to take possession of any retail store although he usually finds expensive articles.
3. They bring higher prices relatively than the heavier things even when they are disposed of under forced sale.
4. The catalogue houses have little fear for five-and-ten-cent stores because sixty-eight per cent of their business is in big goods such as furniture vehicles sewing-machines clothing and relatively expensive things. They do not wish to increase the sale of popular-priced articles although their catalogue may be full of them because it costs them more to pack one hammer or trowel than the profits can stand.
5. Steel conditions remain about as they have been for several weeks excepting that the price of rails has been advancing for the last few days.
6. Steel men are of the opinion that to increase prices too rapidly would spoil a good market because most of the mills are so filled up with orders that they would not be able to take advantage of increased quotations for some time to come.
7. The steel business for the last three months has been very encouraging as it shows that railroads are dropping their policy of waiting until the last minute to buy. It will probably mean more normal operation of mills instead of spasmodic workings as has been the case for the last few years.
8. Boraxated soap chips will benefit your tableware and your hands making dishwashing a pleasure instead of a task.
9. The man who works to the limit of his physical powers is as foolish as the manufacturer who immediately invests all his profits in his business neglecting to have a reserve fund for unexpected demands.
10. A wide-awake manager tries plan after plan testing and re-testing them until he can apply them to his company's needs.

Write four sentences illustrating Rule 10.

Exercise 188 Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction for each:

1 Dear Madam: We wish to acknowledge your letter of recent date assuring you that we thank you for the opportunity you have given us of opening a monthly charge account in your name. We shall spare no effort to make every transaction as satisfactory as possible hoping thus to merit a liberal share of your patronage.

Our bills are rendered on the first of each month being payable between that date and the fifteenth.

Yours very truly,

2 Dear Mr. Warner: In reply to your inquiry I am sending the following information assuring you that I am glad to be of service to you.

The Lancaster Company has apparently abandoned its plan of erecting a new building this year difficulties having arisen it is said in their securing a suitable location. About two years ago the firm purchased a site on the corner of Harrison and Second streets but they sold it again last year taking advantage of a decided rise in real estate values. It is understood we believe that the company will build in the near future even now having two or three possible sites under consideration.

Sincerely yours,

3 Dear Sir: We offer you the benefits and privileges of our Special Charge Account whereby purchases may be paid for in weekly or monthly installments. You will find this a most convenient arrangement because it permits you to have a charge account without the usual hardship of payment at a fixed time. Moreover a Special Charge Account costs you nothing since our prices are the same whether you pay cash or have purchases charged. Please fill out the enclosed application blank mailing it to us to-day.

You will no doubt enjoy reading the enclosed booklet as it gives much interesting information on fashion tendencies. The illustrations too are unusually attractive although they hardly do justice to the beautiful garments that we sell.

Yours truly,

Exercise 189 Study the punctuation in the following selections from The Wall Street Journal; then write them from dictation:

1 Trouble in Introducing Steel "Strange as it now seems," said one of Carnegie's "young men," now the vice-president of a large and prosperous corporation in New York, "in the early days of the steel industry we had the greatest difficulty in the world in weaning the old manufacturers away from the use of wrought iron, though they admitted the superiority of steel. They would look at it, test it, and agree that it seemed to possess all the desirable qualities claimed for it, but it was more or less untried by time, and they preferred to stick to the old wrought iron, with which they were familiar.

"I remember one old chap with whom I had wrestled long, but in vain, coming into my office and picking up a long, soft steel rivet, which had been bent double and hammered flat.

"'How many did you break in making this?' he asked, picking it up and examining it curiously.

"'That's the first one we hammered over, and, what is more to the point, we can do it with all steel of that type,' I replied.

"The polite incredulity in his face stirred my professional pride, and I said, 'If I let you go to the mills, pick out a dozen of those rivets just as they come from the rolls, and hammer them with your own hands, will you use that steel hereafter, if it comes up to the test?'

"He said he would, and the rest was easy, for it is much easier not to break than to break that kind of steel. Before long the old man came back with perspiration dripping from the end of his nose but with the light of conviction shining in his eye. The firm had a new customer."

2 Conservation Leslie M. Shaw, former Secretary of the Treasury, was in New York, attending a meeting of a board of which he is a member. Something was said about the present-day discussion of money power, and Shaw said that it reminded him of a speech he had made in Seattle in the campaign of 1896.

"I was speaking to a filled hall and had almost finished," said Shaw, "when a long-whiskered man arose about the middle of the hall and held up his hand, saying he wanted to ask a question.

"'Go ahead,' I said.

"'How, then, Mr. Speaker, do you explain the unequal distribution of wealth?' was his question.

"When I answered him with, 'In the same way that I explain the unequal distribution of whiskers,' bedlam broke loose.

"As soon as I could get quiet restored, I said: 'Now don't think I returned the answer I did to make fun of your whiskers. You will observe that I have no whiskers, as I dissipate them by shaving them off. Nature gives me abundance of whiskers, and, if I conserved them as you do, I also should be abundantly supplied. Now, it is the same way with money. The man who conserves his money has more than his share, as with whiskers; while the man who dissipates his money is without his allotment.'"

Exercise 190—The Semicolon (;) The semicolon is used between the propositions of a compound sentence when no coördinate conjunction is used. (See Exercise 176, 2.)

It is not work that kills men; it is worry. It is important not to overdo this use of the semicolon. Do not use it unless the two principal clauses of the sentence taken together easily form one idea. Especial care must be taken not to confuse coördinate conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs. The following are conjunctive adverbs: then, therefore, consequently, moreover, however, so, also, besides, thus, still, otherwise, accordingly. When they are used to join principal clauses, they should be preceded by a coördinate conjunction or a semicolon; as,

Fruit was plentiful, and therefore the price was low. Fruit was plentiful; therefore the price was low. When there is a series of phrases or clauses, each of which is long and contains commas within itself, the sentence becomes clearer if the members of the series are separated by semicolons instead of by commas; as,

You know how prolific the American mind has been in invention; how much civilization has been advanced by the steamboat, the cotton-gin, the sewing-machine, the reaping-machine, the typewriter, the electric light, the telephone, the phonograph.

Write the following from dictation:

1 No man can deny that the lines of endeavor have more and more narrowed and stiffened; no one who knows anything about the development of industry in this country can fail to have observed that the larger kinds of credit are more and more difficult to obtain, unless you obtain them upon the terms of uniting your efforts with those who already control the industries of the country; and nobody can fail to observe that any man who tries to set himself up in competition with any process of manufacture which has been taken under the control of large combinations of capital will presently find himself either squeezed out or obliged to sell and allow himself to be absorbed.—Woodrow Wilson: The New Freedom.

2 If the total amount of savings deposited in the savings banks were equally divided among the population of the country, the amount apportioned to each person in 1820 would have been twelve cents; in 1830, fifty-four cents; in 1840, eighty-two cents; in 1850, $1.87; in 1860, $4.75; in 1870, $14.26; in 1880, $16.33; in 1890, $24.75; in 1900, $31.78; in 1910, $45.05, and it is steadily increasing. Remember the fact that the population had increased from 10,000,000 in 1820 to over 90,000,000 in 1910; the "rainy day" money, therefore, assumes gigantic proportions.

3 In Germany, says The Scientific American, wood is too expensive to be burned, and it is made into artificial silk worth two dollars a pound and bristles worth four dollars a pound; into paper, yarn, twine, carpet, canvas, and cloth. Parquet flooring is made from sawdust; the materials may be bought by the pound and then mixed, so that the householder can lay his own hardwood floors according to his individual taste and ingenuity.

4 The country gentlemen and country clergymen had fully expected that the policy of these ministers would be directly opposed to that which had been almost constantly followed by William; that the landed interest would be favored at the expense of trade; that no addition would be made to the funded debt; that the privileges conceded to Dissenters by the late king would be curtailed, if not withdrawn; that the war with France, if there must be such a war, would, on our part, be almost entirely naval; and that the government would avoid close connections with foreign powers and, above all, with Holland.—Macaulay.

Exercise 191—The Colon (:) The colon is always used to indicate that something of importance follows, usually an enumeration or a list of some kind, or a quotation of several sentences or paragraphs; as,

1. Three things are necessary: intelligence, perseverance, and tact.
2. The buffalo supplies them with almost all the necessities of life: with habitation, food, and clothing; with strings for their bows; with thread, cordage, and trail-ropes for their horses; with coverings for their saddles; and with the means of purchasing all that they desire from traders.
3. Quoting from the current number of the —— Magazine, he read: (four paragraphs).

Punctuate:

1. For the first fifty miles we had companions with us Troche a little trapper and Rouville a nondescript in the employ of the fur company.
2. About a week previous four men had arrived from beyond the mountains Sublette Reddick and two others.
3. Reynal was gazing intently he began to speak at last "Many a time when I was with the Indians I have been hunting gold all through the Black Hills there's a plenty of it here you may be certain of that I have dreamed about it fifty times" etc.
4. Objects familiar from childhood surrounded me crags and rocks a black and sullen brook that gurgled with a hollow voice among the crevices a wood of mossy distorted trees.

Exercise 192 The colon is used after thus, as follows, the following, or similar expressions; as,

Name the adverbs in the following: He left hurriedly rather early in the morning.

The colon is not used after namely, as, that is, for example, for instance, and the like. Such expressions are preceded by the semicolon and followed by the comma.

Punctuate the following:

1. The Christmas presents that he wants are the following a toy train a toy automobile a toy circus and a printing press.

2. Do the exercise thus first lunge to the left second raise the arms forward and third wind the wand.

3. We are offering for sale three residences of the size that you wish namely 438 Bishop Ave 1614 Winchester St and 2015 Logan Square.

4. The following are the two that we liked best 438 Bishop Ave and 2015 Logan Square.

5. One use of the comma is to set off an appositive for example Mr Kearne the buyer has left the city.

6. The comma is used to set off an independent adverb as We have not yet decided however when we shall leave.

7. The plan is this I'll do the work and you pay for the materials.

8. The officers are as follows Edward Lawrence for President John Kelly for Secretary and Fred Morrison for Treasurer.

   
   

Exercise 193—The Dash(—) The dash is used to set off parenthetical expressions that have very little connection with the rest of the sentence; as,

In New York the Harlem River tunnel was comparatively a simple one, but the first East River tunnels—the two subway tubes from the Battery to Brooklyn—presented all the difficulties known to subaqueous construction.

These tunnels extend on under the great Pennsylvania terminal building—another of the same decade's accomplishments—to East Thirty-fourth Street.

The dash is also used to indicate a sudden change or break in the thought; as,

1. When the millennium comes—if it ever does—all of our problems will be solved.
2. "I believe—" began the lawyer.

"Believe!" interrupted his client. "I don't want you to believe. I want you to know."

The dash is used before a word that summarizes the preceding part of the sentence; as,

He had robbed himself of the most precious thing a man can have in business—his friends.

After a comma the dash has the effect of lengthening the separation; as,

One thing the Puritans desired,—freedom to worship God.

Exercise 194—Parenthesis Marks () Parenthesis marks are used to enclose explanatory expressions that are not an essential part of the sentence; as,

The United States Department of Agriculture estimates that the receipts of cattle at the six leading markets (Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City, South Omaha, St. Joseph, and Sioux City) from January 1 to August 1 of this year are 15 per cent less than they were in the corresponding period of last year.

Wrong.—Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or a passage. A line should be drawn through a word that is wrong.

Bring to class five sentences that illustrate the correct use of parenthesis marks.

Exercise 195—The Hyphen (-) The hyphen is used when a word has been divided. It is always used at the end of the line and never at the beginning.

When several short words are taken together to form one word, they are hyphenated; as,

a one-hundred-pound bag of coffee

As a rule, when two words taken together are each accented, they must be written with the hyphen. When only one is accented, no hyphen is used; as,

follow-up, first-class, self-reliant, railroad, steamship

As a rule, nouns which are compounded of a participle and a noun use the hyphen; as,

talking-machine, driving-wheel

When fractions are written out, the hyphen is used; as,

one-third, three-fifths

In other numerals expressing a compound number the hyphen is also used; as,

twenty-one, sixty-six

Exercise 196 Punctuate the following letters, supplying a heading and an introduction for each:

1 Gentlemen: We are glad to tell you that contrary to the fears expressed in your last letter there are no present indications of sudden changes at least no indications of drops in prices. With the exception of two fruits and one vegetable grapes cantaloupes and cauliflower all commodities sold on the wholesale fruit and produce markets here were quoted yesterday at the prices announced last Friday.

The change in grape prices affected the Red Peru variety in which the supply has almost stopped the price being raised from $1.05 to $1.25 a box. If one may trust the forecast of local merchants the price will probably remain at this higher point until the supply is exhausted. Cantaloupes seem to be a trifle scarce especially the pineapple variety the price of which was raised from $1.10 to $1.30 a crate. Cauliflower was raised to $1.35 a dozen heads the staple price probably for the rest of the season.

Excepting these items we shall be glad to receive any orders at Friday's quotations.

Yours truly,

2 Gentlemen: Your order of the 20th instant forwarded from our Trenton office came this morning. We regret to say however that we do not carry the Sanito brand of canned goods as we do not consider the grade first-class. If the Monsoon brand which is generally acknowledged to be excellent will serve your purpose we can fill your order at once.

We are now in a position to supply the trade with Mrs. Keller's coffee of which we have fortunately secured several thousand packages at a very low price. If you wish any at $2.50 per dozen packages less than half the retail price you will notice let us hear from you at once.

Yours truly,

3 Dear Sir: We acknowledge your letter of October 5 but we regret that as yet we have no information in regard to the excess charge of $1.02 which you were obliged to pay on the express shipment of one piece 27 yds. of plaid silk chiffon. We have taken up the matter with the mill however and as soon as we receive their report we shall write you again.

Asking your indulgence meanwhile we are

Yours truly,

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