When Yuri Gagarin smiled into the porthole and said, “Let's go!”, behind him stood not only the Vostok rocket, but thousands of engineers and their sleepless nights, hand-drawn calculations, and burnt-out models. Let's take a look at what designers in the 1960s worked with, what engineers in the 21st century live on, and what technologies will take us into a new era — far beyond the Moon and Mars. April 12, 1961 — the date after which humanity ceased to be “just” an earthly species. The human race has no future if it doesn't go to space - Stephen Hawking The human race has no future if it doesn't go to space - Stephen Hawking The human race has no future if it doesn't go to space - Space was not just a frontier of science back then — it was a field of heroism. Everything was done for the first time, by trial and error and under the seal of secrecy. More than 60 years have passed since then, and we have entered the digital age. Today, an engineer with a laptop can launch satellites from a café in California, and spacecraft design is more like a startup than a military project. Instead of drawings, there are 3D models. Instead of manual calculations, there are simulations in the cloud. But some things have not changed. How They Designed “Back Then”: Drawings, Rulers, and Genius Konstantin Eduardovich impressed me with his belief in the possibility of space travel, and I left him with one thought in mind — to build rockets and fly them - Sergei Korolev on his meeting with Tsiolkovsky Konstantin Eduardovich impressed me with his belief in the possibility of space travel, and I left him with one thought in mind — to build rockets and fly them - Sergei Korolev on his meeting with Tsiolkovsky Moscow, late 1950s. It's winter outside, but it's hot in OKB-1. Literally: they work around the clock, the rooms are rarely ventilated, and the windows are covered with newspapers because it's a “classified facility.” The corridors are filled with engineers carrying stacks of drawings, and the drawing boards are covered with millions of lines. Here, they are developing something that no one else in the world has done before: satellites, rockets, and reusable spacecraft. Almost every OKB employee is young, in their early thirties. They don't have Google, but they have TsAGI, institutes, tables with coefficients, and faith that in six months, everything will fly. Korolev personally walks through the workshops and drawing rooms. He is taciturn, stingy with praise, but if he scolds someone, they remember it forever. He does not call engineers by their surnames, but by their drawings: “Who did calculation No. 314?” — and that's it, you're in the game. Drawing Board and Drawing Paper A drawing board is a vertical drawing table with a fixed ruler that allows you to draw lines at the correct angle. No design engineer could do without one. Drawings were created on the drawing board at a scale of 1:1 or 1:10 — often the size of a door. Drawing on A0-size drawing paper could take several days, and sometimes weeks. Unlike modern CAD programs, where elements can be moved in seconds, any change on paper required a complete reworking of the section. One mistake and a whole week's work would go to waste. Therefore, design was not just precise — it was meditative. Logarithmic Ruler A tool that today can only be seen in museums or films. It is an analog calculator that allows you to multiply, divide, extract roots, and calculate trigonometric functions using a sliding scale. And without a single battery! Interesting fact. In 1961, Gagarin did not have a laptop on board Vostok-1, but a slide rule and calculation tables — in case the automatic systems failed. The slide rule was useful not only in the design bureau but also during the flight. Interesting fact. Interesting fact. In 1961, Gagarin did not have a laptop on board Vostok-1, but a slide rule and calculation tables — in case the automatic systems failed. The slide rule was useful not only in the design bureau but also during the flight. Physical Models Each spacecraft was first built in “real life” — on a 1:1 scale, from plywood, plaster, aluminum, and even cardboard. They checked how the instruments would be placed, how the cosmonaut would climb into the hatch, and where to put the handrail. Such models were not cheap, but they were necessary: in the absence of 3D graphics and VR, this was the only way to make sure that everything really “fits” and “works.” The model helped to check the ergonomics, accessibility of instruments, and layout of equipment. Even the length of the cosmonaut's arm was taken into account manually so that he could reach the right button. Manual Calculations All ballistic, aerodynamic, and thermal calculations were performed manually — on sheets of paper, in notebooks, and on the backs of drawings. In the late 1950s, computers (such as the MESM and BESM) began to be used, but their capabilities were insufficient, and they were only available in a few institutes in the country. In 1957, a group of 20–30 people working simultaneously was used to calculate a single flight trajectory — a kind of “living Excel.” Fear. Responsibility. Disaster. Behind all the blueprints was not only science — but also fear. If you make a mistake, it won't take off. Or worse, it will explode at launch, as happened with the R-16 in 1960 at Baikonur (a disaster that killed more than 70 people). The projects were carried out under enormous pressure: the Kremlin demanded success, and the USA was launching cosmonauts one after another. Often, there was no room for error, but there was also no room for “not trying.” Timeline: From the Drawing Board to the First Orbits Everybody probably knows all the achievements of the USA’s astronauts. But what were the achievements of Soviet cosmonauts? Let`s recap in order. 1957 — The first artificial Earth satellite (Sputnik-1) 1957 — The first artificial Earth satellite (Sputnik-1) Designed by hand at Korolev's design bureau. They used drawing boards, abacuses, and logarithmic rulers. The body was an aluminum sphere with four antennas. Preparation took two years, and the device weighed 83.6 kg. Designed by hand at Korolev's design bureau. They used drawing boards, abacuses, and logarithmic rulers. The body was an aluminum sphere with four antennas. Preparation took two years, and the device weighed 83.6 kg. 1961 — First man in space (Yuri Gagarin, Vostok-1) 1961 — First man in space (Yuri Gagarin, Vostok-1) The cabin layout was tested on full-size plywood models. The trajectory was calculated manually with the help of a BESM-2 computer. The capsule contained a slide rule and a set of tables for manual calculations. The flight time was 108 minutes, but it took more than four years to prepare. The cabin layout was tested on full-size plywood models. The trajectory was calculated manually with the help of a BESM-2 computer. The capsule contained a slide rule and a set of tables for manual calculations. The flight time was 108 minutes, but it took more than four years to prepare. 1965 — First spacewalk (Leonov, Voskhod-2) 1965 — First spacewalk (Leonov, Voskhod-2) A combination of engineering feat and risk: the spacesuit inflated in a vacuum, the hatch jammed. The design was carried out in strict secrecy, and the helmets were assembled by hand. One of the spacesuit prototypes was made of a rubberized material developed for diving suits. A combination of engineering feat and risk: the spacesuit inflated in a vacuum, the hatch jammed. The design was carried out in strict secrecy, and the helmets were assembled by hand. One of the spacesuit prototypes was made of a rubberized material developed for diving suits. 1969 — Lunar program N1-L3 1969 — Lunar program N1-L3 The creation of the super-heavy N1 rocket was carried out in a hurry. Due to the lack of a test base, full-scale fire tests of the stages were abandoned. Design work was carried out in parallel with production, often without a final version in hand. All four N1 launches ended in failure. The creation of the super-heavy N1 rocket was carried out in a hurry. Due to the lack of a test base, full-scale fire tests of the stages were abandoned. Design work was carried out in parallel with production, often without a final version in hand. All four N1 launches ended in failure. 1975 — Joint Soyuz-Apollo mission 1975 — Joint Soyuz-Apollo mission The first project involving international cooperation. A compatible docking system had to be designed — everything was created from scratch. American and Soviet standards were used — and dozens of translators were present at the meetings. The first project involving international cooperation. A compatible docking system had to be designed — everything was created from scratch. American and Soviet standards were used — and dozens of translators were present at the meetings. 1986 — Start of construction of the Mir orbital station 1986 — Start of construction of the Mir orbital station The first multi-module station, development took more than 10 years. The modular principle was applied for the first time: the structure was designed in parts, taking into account future dockings. Calculations were performed both manually and on Soviet supercomputers (for example, Elbrus). The first multi-module station, development took more than 10 years. The modular principle was applied for the first time: the structure was designed in parts, taking into account future dockings. Calculations were performed both manually and on Soviet supercomputers (for example, Elbrus). How Design is Done Today: Digital, AI, and the Cloud Today, a design department may look like an open space with white tables, laptops, and VR headsets. Instead of drawing paper, there is a 3D model in a CAD program. Instead of drawings on graph paper, there is an aerodynamic simulation in Ansys or OpenFoam. And instead of arguments at the drawing board, there are meetings in Meet. Space has gone digital! Space has gone digital! Space has gone digital! Equipment, methods, and the very approach to design have changed radically over the past 20 years. Engineers no longer work alone, but in conjunction with algorithms: a project can be partially generated automatically, tested in the cloud, and refined using AI. This is no longer an industry — it is a distributed ecosystem where engineers, mathematicians, developers, and even designers assemble spacecraft like iPhones. AD Programs and PLM Systems: Digital Drawing Boards and Memory Today, the creation of a spacecraft begins not on paper, but on a screen. Modern CAD (Computer-Aided Design) programs are not just 3D drawing boards. They are full-fledged digital workshops where you can “assemble” the entire spacecraft down to the last screw, specify materials, loads, vibration behavior, and even run a flight through a Mars gravity simulator. CATIA, SolidWorks, Autodesk Inventor, Siemens NX — in these environments, designers work with parts in the same way that designers work with shapes in Figma: they drag, change, and check compatibility. Any change immediately affects neighboring components: change the shape of the antenna, and the program will recalculate the center of mass, the load on the body, and even suggest where it might now interfere with thermal protection. PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) is like GitHub, but for physics and assembly. Yes, there is such a thing. The system tracks the entire life cycle of a component: who created it, who approved it, who ordered it from the contractor, and how it performed in testing. One bolt — a hundred pieces of metadata. At Airbus Defence & Space, satellite design is done entirely in CATIA. All changes are recorded in the ENOVIA PLM system. If an engineer in France changes the length of a cable, assemblers in Britain and logisticians in India will know about it in a second. SpaceX has gone even further — they have developed their own CAD system that integrates with production equipment. An engineer changes the model, and new instructions are immediately loaded into the CNC machine. Minimal bureaucracy, maximum speed. AI and Generative Design: When a Program “Invents” a Design Generative design is an approach in which AI offers dozens or hundreds of design options based on specified parameters: “It needs to hold 12 tons, weigh no more than 100 kg, not resonate at 1000 Hz, and fit within a diameter of 80 cm.” The algorithms sift through thousands of combinations of materials, shapes, ribs, holes, and lattice structures that a human would never be able to handle in a lifetime. The result is surprisingly organic designs that resemble bones or insect wings. But they work — and, as a rule, they are 30–50% lighter than those made by hand. At Planet Labs (which manufactures mini-satellites for monitoring the Earth), generative design has reduced the weight of the satellite's supporting truss by 35%, while maintaining strength and saving hundreds of thousands of dollars on each launch. AI is also used for: automatic component placement (so that they do not interfere with each other); trajectory calculation (especially for gravitational maneuvers); predicting equipment wear and failure (predictive maintenance). automatic component placement (so that they do not interfere with each other); trajectory calculation (especially for gravitational maneuvers); predicting equipment wear and failure (predictive maintenance). Fascinating? It is! Cloud Simulations and Testing: Test Benches Have Moved to Data Centers In the “paper” era, aerodynamics were tested in wind tunnels, thermal conditions in ovens and refrigerators, and electromagnetic fields on a special antenna behind a concrete wall. Today, all of this is being replaced by digital simulations. An engineer uploads a model to a cloud service (e.g., Ansys Cloud, SimScale, AWS HPC) and runs it: “What will happen if the device overheats in orbit?” “How will the hull behave at 400 Hz resonance?” “Where will the overload zones be during the Falcon 9 launch?” “What will happen if the device overheats in orbit?” “How will the hull behave at 400 Hz resonance?” “Where will the overload zones be during the Falcon 9 launch?” All of this is modeled in a matter of hours. Parameters can be changed on the fly, hundreds of options can be compared, and the optimum can be sought. A test that would have taken three months, two tons of mock-ups, and a cubic meter of drawings in the 1970s can now be done overnight on a server somewhere in Virginia. 3D Printing: Print First, Then Think About How to Assemble Additive manufacturing technology (aka 3D printing) has rapidly entered the space industry. Printers are already printing: fuel tanks; rocket nozzles; complex heat sink elements; load-bearing trusses and even... engines! fuel tanks; rocket nozzles; complex heat sink elements; load-bearing trusses and even... engines! Unlike traditional milling, printing allows you to create geometrically complex elements without gluing, welding, or excess weight. For example, Relativity Space prints 95% of its Terran R rocket. This not only reduces assembly time by a factor of 10, but also simplifies logistics: fewer parts mean greater reliability. Global Teams: Design Without Borders The design of a satellite or rocket can be carried out on three continents at once. Architecture in Germany, power systems in China, assembly in Texas. All of this is coordinated through digital platforms, for example: Zoom and Google Meet for daily meetings. Jira and Notion for task tracking. Git and GitLab for versioning documentation and code. Figma and Miro for creating interfaces and visualizations. Zoom and Google Meet for daily meetings. Jira and Notion for task tracking. Git and GitLab for versioning documentation and code. Figma and Miro for creating interfaces and visualizations. This is not just convenient — it's very fast. Whereas previously, it took weeks to finalize a drawing, today, a comment such as “move the antenna 3 mm” is sent for approval and confirmed in 10 minutes. What's Next: Automation, Generative Design, and Space by Subscription If an engineer in the 1960s was a hero with a pencil, then an engineer in the 2030s is more like an architect who sets the parameters. He doesn't draw every nut and bolt; he launches the process: “I want a 200 kg orbital satellite that can withstand radiation and transmit 1.2 TB of data per day.” Everything else is done by the computer. Space is becoming digital not only at the design stage, but also in its very essence. In the coming years, the industry will change even more rapidly. Here are a few trends that are already on the horizon: AI assistants will automate calculations, suggest optimal designs, and test dozens of design options before assembly. The engineer sets the parameters — the algorithm does the rest. AI assistants will automate calculations, suggest optimal designs, and test dozens of design options before assembly. The engineer sets the parameters — the algorithm does the rest. Next-generation generative design — devices will not be “drawn” but will literally grow within the system, like a living organism, adapting to the conditions of the task. Next-generation generative design — devices will not be “drawn” but will literally grow within the system, like a living organism, adapting to the conditions of the task. Space by subscription — satellites and modules can be rented, customized online, and launched via platforms as a service (Space-as-a-Service). Amazon Kuiper, Starlink, and OneWeb are already operating as infrastructure rather than missions. Soon, it will be possible to reserve a place in space like a hotel room. Or a slot in the cloud. Space by subscription — satellites and modules can be rented, customized online, and launched via platforms as a service (Space-as-a-Service). Amazon Kuiper, Starlink, and OneWeb are already operating as infrastructure rather than missions. Soon, it will be possible to reserve a place in space like a hotel room. Or a slot in the cloud. Amazon Kuiper Orbital manufacturing — structures will be assembled and printed directly in space. This will allow the creation of huge telescopes, stations, and modules without restrictions on rocket size. NASA Archinaut One is a satellite with a manipulator that can print and assemble structures directly in orbit. The first flight is expected in 2026. Orbital manufacturing — structures will be assembled and printed directly in space. This will allow the creation of huge telescopes, stations, and modules without restrictions on rocket size. NASA Archinaut One is a satellite with a manipulator that can print and assemble structures directly in orbit. The first flight is expected in 2026. Fascinating? Yes! Summing Up The design of space technology has come a long way that engineers of the past could not have dreamed of. From drawing boards to digital twins in the cloud. From plywood models to generative design that finds the ideal shape on its own. From calculations in notebooks to simulations running in Amazon data centers. But the essence remains the same. Engineers still spend the night in the office, checking connections against a 283-page checklist and drinking coffee from disposable cups. Only now, they are accompanied not only by their colleagues, but also by AI. In space, there is still no room for error. One bug means mission failure. One unaccounted parameter means that the “eternity” of the spacecraft turns into a 12-minute flight. Everything is the same as it was 60 years ago. Only now do we know this in advance — and we can do something about it.
