Scientific American, Volume XXIV., No. 12, March 18, 1871 by Various, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . Silk culture. here SILK CULTURE. BY W. V. ANDREWS. A vague notion that silk culture ought to form one of the industrial pursuits of the American people seems to be prevalent enough; but it does not take practical hold upon anybody. The nearest approach to anything practical which we have seen, in late years—excepting, of course, what has been done in California—occurred in New York in July last, when a number of gentlemen pledged themselves, according to a report given in the of July 30, "to promote the native silk trade." Tribune The gentlemen present at the meeting represented the most prominent silk manufacturing and importing houses in this country. What these gentlemen have since done towards promoting the native silk trade, I do not know, but, having pledged themselves, it is presumed they have done something. At the meeting, of which the article is a report, dags, and other things, manufactured from California silk, were exhibited; and the report goes on to say that "Mr. Warren also exhibited samples of native and foreign cocoons, and of raw and thrown silk, together with the common and , species of silkworms which feed upon oak leaves. * * Also the which feeds upon mulberry leaves; also the , of which the cocoons are early as good as the cocoons of worms fed upon mulberry leaves." Tribune Cecropia Bombyx Cynthia Bombyx Yamamai Bombynx Pernyi I have given this extract, word for word, as it stands in the columns of the , because it contains more blunders of one kind or another than I remember ever to have seen in so many words. is certainly not very particular as to its food, but it is not an oak feeder. will thrive on nothing except ailanthus, though it will eat one or two other things, but not oak. The , on the other hand, will eat oak, indeed it is its natural food; but Mr. Warren errs greatly when he says that it will feed on mulberry. The last clause of the sentence, which says that cocoons of are nearly as good as those of worms fed on mulberry leaves, must be a sort of entomological joke, of which the point is not discoverable by me, so I pass it over. Tribune Cecropia Cynthia Yamamai Pernyi I do not, however, notice this report on account of its grammatical and entomological mistakes. It is because of the evil effects it may, and probably will, have on amateur silk culturists, that I notice it; for most assuredly, failure will be the result of all attempts to produce silk cocoons by feeding the caterpillars of the different moths on the food prescribed by Mr. Warren. Any patriotic, money making farmer, who believes in the , purchasing eggs and setting his worms to feed upon mulberry, which they refuse to eat, and consequently, all die, will probably give up silk culture as being nothing more or less than a humbug. And thus the cause is injured. Tribune Yamamai For several years past, I have made some experiments in the rearing of the silkworms, giving the result of my experience in the first year in Vol. II., page 311, of the ; and of a subsequent year in the , for November, 1869. American Naturalist Entomologist The paper in the is devoted to my experiments with the ailanthus silkworm, (G. & R.), a naturalized species from the East. In that paper, I have said all that is necessary to say at present, on that species, except perhaps that I am further convinced, from the inspection of samples of sewing and other silks, made from the cocoons of , that one day it will be reared very extensively in the United States. It is perfectly hardy, is double brooded, and may be reared by any one possessed of a few acres of land, which may be good enough for growing ailanthus trees, but not good enough to grow any thing else. The labor of a few old men, or women, or even children, is sufficient for the purpose. The cost is therefore trifling. Naturalist Samia Cynthia Cynthia The objection to the cultivation of is that the cocoon cannot be reeled. But it can be carded, and if the Chinese can make excellent silk goods from it, why cannot we? I suspect, too, that silk can be worked in with cotton, or, perhaps, woolen goods, adding to their beauty and durability (for it is indestructible in wear), and thus open up branches of manufacture hitherto unknown. Cynthia Cynthia For manufacturers of coarse goods, I have no doubt that the silk from our native silk moths, and , may be used. Indeed, I believe that M. Trouvelot is of opinion that may fairly enter into competition with , the ordinary mulberry silkworm. The worm, however, is rather difficult to rear. Cecropia Polyphemus Polyphemus Bombyx mori In reference, however, to , it is well known that the silk crop in France and Italy has been reduced greatly, and the price of silk goods consequently enhanced, by prevalence of disease among the worms. So much is this the case, that silk breeders have been obliged to look around for some silk-producing moths whose products may, at any rate, supplement the deficient crop. , as already mentioned as one of these, and two others mentioned by Warren in the reports above adverted to, are at present the subjects of experiment. Bombyx mori Cynthia Tribune My article mentioned before as appearing in the is mainly devoted to my experiments, and those of my correspondents, with , which, as I said before, is an oak feeder. In Japan, which is its native country, it feeds, in its wild state, on . Whether that oak be found in America, I do not know, but it is of little importance, as the worm will feed on almost any species of oak, although I think that it prefers white oak. The importance of acclimatizing new species of silk moths is of so much prospective importance, that I shall devote the remainder of this article to the consideration of whether and may not be naturalized here. Any one, who happens to have the number of the containing the article above alluded to, may find it worth while to read it, but as many persons may not be able to obtain that number, I will here repeat the substance of my remarks, adding as much new matter as subsequent experience has afforded. American Entomologist Yamamai Quercus serrata Yamamai Pernyi Entomologist The silk from the being considered superior to that produced by any other of the substitute silk moths, great efforts have been made in Europe to acclimatize it; but, it must be confessed, hitherto with but slight success. There are exceptions, however, particularly among amateurs in Germany, sufficient to show that success is possible. The Baron de Bretton raises about 27,000 cocoons annually. Yamamai In this country but little has been done, or attempted, and that little has not been very successful. The fact is, that is a difficult moth to rear in a country like this, where in early spring the temperature varies so much; but that success is possible, I am convinced. Yamamai The moth emerges from the cocoon in the latter part of the summer, copulates, lays its eggs, and of course dies. And now the trouble commences; that is, with eggs laid, say in Japan, from whence we mainly get our supplies. As soon as the egg is laid, the young larva commences its formation, which in a short time (about one month) is perfected. It lies in the egg in a quiescent state till early spring. If the egg remain in the country where it is laid, and is kept at a pretty even temperature, and free from damp, the caterpillar emerges in a healthy condition. But if it be removed some thousands of miles, passing in the transit from heat to cold, and back to heat again: and if, in addition, it be closely confined in a damp place, with little or no circulation of air, the egg is attacked by a fungus which sometimes prevents the worm from emerging at all; or, if it emerge, it is in a sickly condition. That these conditions obtain in the transit of eggs, from Japan to Europe, and thence to America, is evident enough; and it may, therefore, require the efforts of many persons, continued for a long time, to enable us to acclimatize the . But this is all that is required, and I feel confident that ultimate success is certain. Yamamai On hatching out, the worm is of a brimstone yellow, and thinly covered with strong hairs; after the second month it is greenish, with black, longitudinal streaks, and the thread a dull coral red color. After the third month it becomes of a fine apple green, with yellow tubercles on each segment, from which issue a few black hairs. The head and legs are chocolate brown, the prolegs reddish, and the first segment edged with pinkish color. The greatest care is necessary, as the spring advances, to prevent the eggs from hatching before the oak buds are ready for them, and the temperature must be regulated with the greatest nicety. If the eggs can be kept somewhere about 50 deg. Fah., it would be quite safe; higher than that the mercury should not be allowed to rise, till you are quite ready for the worms, and, on the other hand, the eggs should not be allowed to freeze. On emerging from the eggs, the worms should be allowed either to crawl to the oak branches, or rather to sprigs obtained for that purpose, the end of which should be placed in a jar, or bottle, of water, or the worms may be placed on gently with a camel-hair brush. The leaves should be well sprinkled with clean water that the caterpillars may drink. From some cause, not well understood, the young caterpillars have a tendency to wander; and if care be not taken many may be lost. To prevent this, it is well to cover the branches with a gauze bag, tied tightly around the stems, and close to the bottle. Care must also be taken that the caterpillars do not find their way into the water, which they assuredly will if they have the opportunity, committing suicide in the most reckless manner. If the number of caterpillars be few, it is a good plan to place them at the outset with their food, in a wide-mouthed bottle, covering the mouth with gauze. The branches, particularly if the weather be warm, must still be occasionally sprinkled, so that the caterpillars may have the opportunity of drinking. It must be remembered that experiment is necessary in rearing , but one thing is ascertained, and that is, that the worms must not be exposed to direct sunshine, at least not after seven or eight in the morning. If the spring be warm, I am inclined to think that a northeastern exposure is the best, and we may sum up by saying, that comparatively cool and moist seasons are more favorable to success that hot, dry weather. In America the worms suffer in the early spring, from the rapid changes of temperature, 40° at 9 a.m. increasing to 70° in the afternoon and falling off to freezing point during the night. The worms cannot stand this. They become torpid, refuse to eat, and consequently die. To prevent this, if the nights be cold, they must be placed where no such change of temperature can occur. Yamamai It is scarcely necessary to say that an ample supply of fresh food must be always supplied, but it may not be amiss to say that it is well, when supplying fresh branches, to remove the worms from the old to the new. The best way of doing this is to clip off the branch, or leaf, on which the worm is resting, and tie, pin, or in some way affix the same to the new branches. If this be not done, they will continue to eat the old leaf, even if it be withered, and this induces disease. If the worm has fastened itself for the purpose of moulting, the best way is to remove the entire branch, clipping off all the dried leaves before so removing it. These remarks apply, in general, to the treatment of all silkworms, except . Bombyx mori The results of numerous experiments with go to show that it is, as I said before, a difficult worm to rear; but it has been reared near New York to the extent of eight hundred cocoons out of sixteen hundred eggs, and this, although not a remunerative result, is encouraging. Yamamai The Chinese silk moth, , also an oak feeder, has been successfully raised by me and by others, for several years. Eggs have been sold to persons in States widely separated, and the results show that this worm is perfectly hardy. Aulterea Pernyi The moth winters in the cocoon, emerges early in May, if the weather be warm, pairs readily, and lays from 150 to 200 eggs. These hatch out in about fourteen days, and like , always about 5 or 6 o'clock in the morning. It is necessary to be on the alert to catch them on hatching only, and to remember that they are vagabonds, even to a greater extent than . Consequently similar precautions must be taken. Yamamai Yamamai The worm on emerging from the egg is large, and of a chocolate-brown color. After the first month it becomes of a yellowish green; head, pale brown; feet and prolegs of nearly the same color. The body has numerous reddish tubercles, from which issue a few reddish hairs. At the base of some of the tubercles on the anterior segments are silvery patches. The worm is much more easily reared than that of , but still great care is needed; fresh food of course is essential, and a slight sprinkling of the branches and worms in very warm weather is advisable; although it is not so necessary as with . It is remarkable that worms, fed in the open air, on oak trees, do not, at present, thrive so well as those fed in-doors, but this, doubtless, is a question of acclimation. I advise white oak ( ) as food, if it can be readily obtained, but failing that, pin oak ( ) will do; and I have no doubt that they will feed on any kind of oak. They will, indeed, feed on birch, and on sweet gum ( ), but oak is the proper food. It is worthy of remark that bears a strong resemblance to our , but it is more easily reared in confinement, and double brooded; an important fact for the silk culturist. From American reared eggs, I obtained cocoons as early as July 4th, the perfect insect emerging on July 31. Copulation immediately ensued, and the resulting eggs hatched only on August 12, ten days only from the time of laying; and as the worm feeds up in about four or five weeks, this affords plenty of time for rearing the second brood. It must be remembered that on the quantity and quality of food, much depends, not only with but with all caterpillars. By furnishing food sparingly the time of feeding would be much prolonged. Pernyi Yamamai Yamamai Pernyi Quercus alba Quercus palustris Liquidambar Pernyi Polyphemus Pernyi I have already said that both and should be fed under shelter for the reasons given, but there is another reason of less importance. The young worms are liable to be attacked by spiders and wasps, and even after the second month, they are not safe from these enemies. I have seen a wasp bite a large caterpillar in two, carry off the anterior section and return for the posterior, which had held on by its prolegs. Did the wasp anticipate this fact, and therefore carry off the anterior part first? As to the spiders, they form a series of pulleys and hoist the caterpillar off its legs, sucking its juices at leisure. Yamamai Pernyi And now I must devote a few words to the advisability of silk culture from a pecuniary point of view. , or the ordinary mulberry silkworm, is, of course, the best to rear, if you can obtain healthy eggs. But this is the difficulty, and thence arises the necessity of cultivating other silk-producing species. I imagine that silk can be produced in most of the States of the Union, and manufactured from the cocoon at a large profit; but for the present, we will leave the manufacture out of the question, and consider only, whether it will not pay to rear eggs and cocoons for sale? It must be remembered that European manufacturers are at this moment largely dependent on foreign countries for the supply of both eggs and cocoons; and this, because of the general prevalence of disease among all the races of . And now, to what extent does the reader suppose this dependence exists? Of cocoons I have no returns at hand, but, of raw silk, European manufacturers purchase, annually, not less than $160,000,000 worth; and of eggs ( ) to the value of $10,000,000. This, then, is a business of no trifling amount. California seems to be alive to the fact, and, I am informed, raised, this last season, $3,000,000 cocoons; and, for sale, about 4,000 ounces of eggs, worth at least $4 per ounce, wholesale. Now, there is no earthly reason why California should monopolize this business. Why are not companies formed in other States for this purpose? or if private individuals lack the enterprise or the means, why do not the legislatures, of those States most favorably located, do something by way of starting the business? A few thousand dollars loaned, or even donated, may prove to be a valuable investment for the people at large, and, even supposing a failure, would not be a very great loss to any body. Bombyx mori Bombyx mori Bombyx mori So far as farmers are concerned, it may interest them to know that one man in England, Capt. Mason, clears $50 per acre by rearing silkworms ( in this case), and I much doubt whether any crop raised here pays as well. Bombyx mori By way of commencement, then, let everybody that has sufficient leisure set to work, and rear as many silkworms, of the above-named species, as he possibly can; and if the process be not remunerative in a pecuniary sense, it most assuredly will be in the amount of pleasure and knowledge obtained. One caution I must give to those who cultivate . Although requires sprinkled branches, does not; nor must the leaves be furnished to them while wet with rain or dew. Bombyx mori Yamamai Bombyx mori .—The article upon this subject, giving experiments of Fairbairn and others, referred to in our editorial upon the same subject, in our last issue, was crowded out by press of matter. The reader will find it in the present number. Effect of Cold upon Iron About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Various (2006). Scientific American, Volume XXIV., No. 12, March 18, 1871. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/19180/pg19180-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

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