Range Over Function Types: The New Feature in the Go 1.23 Release

Introduction This is the blog post version of my talk at GopherCon 2024. https://youtu.be/i9zwUT9dlVc?embedable=true Range over function types is a new language feature in the Go 1.23 release. This blog post will explain why we are adding this new feature, what exactly it is, and how to use it. Why? Since Go 1.18 we’ve had the ability to write new generic container types in Go. For example, let’s consider this very simple Set type, a generic type implemented on top of a map. // Set holds a set of elements. type Set[E comparable] struct { m map[E]struct{} } // New returns a new [Set]. func New[E comparable]() *Set[E] { return &Set[E]{m: make(map[E]struct{})} } Naturally a set type has a way to add elements and a way to check whether elements are present. The details here don’t matter. // Add adds an element to a set. func (s *Set[E]) Add(v E) { s.m[v] = struct{}{} } // Contains reports whether an element is in a set. func (s *Set[E]) Contains(v E) bool { _, ok := s.m[v] return ok } And among other things we will want a function to return the union of two sets. // Union returns the union of two sets. func Union[E comparable](s1, s2 *Set[E]) *Set[E] { r := New[E]() // Note for/range over internal Set field m. // We are looping over the maps in s1 and s2. for v := range s1.m { r.Add(v) } for v := range s2.m { r.Add(v) } return r } Let’s look at this implementation of the Union function for a minute. In order to compute the union of two sets, we need a way to get all the elements that are in each set. In this code we use a for/range statement over an unexported field of the set type. That only works if the Union function is defined in the set package. But there are a lot of reasons why someone might want to loop over all the elements in a set. This set package has to provide some way for its users to do that. How should that work? Push Set elements One approach is to provide a Set method that takes a function, and to call that function with every element in the Set. We’ll call this Push, because the Set pushes every value to the function. Here if the function returns false, we stop calling it. func (s *Set[E]) Push(f func(E) bool) { for v := range s.m { if !f(v) { return } } } In the Go standard library, we see this general pattern used for cases like the sync.Map.Range method, the flag.Visit function, and the filepath.Walk function. This is a general pattern, not an exact one; as it happens, none of those three examples work quite the same way. This is what it looks like to use the Push method to print all the elements of a set: you call Push with a function that does what you want with the element. func PrintAllElementsPush[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { s.Push(func(v E) bool { fmt.Println(v) return true }) } Pull Set elements Another approach to looping over the elements of a Set is to return a function. Each time the function is called, it will return a value from the Set, along with a boolean that reports whether the value is valid. The boolean result will be false when the loop has gone through all the elements. In this case we also need a stop function that can be called when no more values are needed. This implementation uses a pair of channels, one for values in the set and one to stop returning values. We use a goroutine to send values on the channel. The next function returns an element from the set by reading from the element channel, and the stop function tells the goroutine to exit by closing the stop channel. We need the stop function to make sure that the goroutine exits when no more values are needed. // Pull returns a next function that returns each // element of s with a bool for whether the value // is valid. The stop function should be called // when finished calling the next function. func (s *Set[E]) Pull() (func() (E, bool), func()) { ch := make(chan E) stopCh := make(chan bool) go func() { defer close(ch) for v := range s.m { select { case ch <- v: case <-stopCh: return } } }() next := func() (E, bool) { v, ok := <-ch return v, ok } stop := func() { close(stopCh) } return next, stop } Nothing in the standard library works exactly this way. Both runtime.CallersFrames and reflect.Value.MapRange are similar, though they return values with methods rather than returning functions directly. This is what it looks like to use the Pull method to print all the elements of a Set. You call Pull to get a function, and you repeatedly call that function in a for loop. func PrintAllElementsPull[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { next, stop := s.Pull() defer stop() for v, ok := next(); ok; v, ok = next() { fmt.Println(v) } } Standardize the approach We’ve now seen two different approaches to looping over all the elements of a set. Different Go packages use these approaches and several others. That means that when you start using a new Go container package you may have to learn a new looping mechanism. It also means that we can’t write one function that works with several different types of containers, as the container types will handle looping differently. We want to improve the Go ecosystem by developing standard approaches for looping over containers. Iterators This is, of course, an issue that arises in many programming languages. The popular Design Patterns book, first published in 1994, describes this as the iterator pattern. You use an iterator to “provide a way to access the elements of an aggregate object sequentially without exposing its underlying representation.” What this quote calls an aggregate object is what I’ve been calling a container. An aggregate object, or container, is just a value that holds other values, like the Set type we’ve been discussing. Like many ideas in programming, iterators date back to Barbara Liskov’s CLU language, developed in the 1970’s. Today many popular languages provide iterators one way or another, including, among others, C++, Java, Javascript, Python, and Rust. However, Go before version 1.23 did not. For/range As we all know, Go has container types that are built in to the language: slices, arrays, and maps. And it has a way to access the elements of those values without exposing the underlying representation: the for/range statement. The for/range statement works for Go’s built-in container types (and also for strings, channels, and, as of Go 1.22, int). The for/range statement is iteration, but it is not iterators as they appear in today’s popular languages. Still, it would be nice to be able to use for/range to iterate over a user-defined container like the Set type. However, Go before version 1.23 did not support this. Improvements in this release For Go 1.23 we’ve decided to support both for/range over user-defined container types, and a standardized form of iterators. We extended the for/range statement to support ranging over function types. We’ll see below how this helps loop over user-defined containers. We also added standard library types and functions to support using function types as iterators. A standard definition of iterators lets us write functions that work smoothly with different container types. Range over (some) function types The improved for/range statement doesn’t support arbitrary function types. As of Go 1.23 it now supports ranging over functions that take a single argument. The single argument must itself be a function that takes zero to two arguments and returns a bool; by convention, we call it the yield function. func(yield func() bool) func(yield func(V) bool) func(yield func(K, V) bool) When we speak of an iterator in Go, we mean a function with one of these three types. As we’ll discuss below, there is another kind of iterator in the standard library: a pull iterator. When it is necessary to distinguish between standard iterators and pull iterators, we call the standard iterators push iterators. That is because, as we will see, they push out a sequence of values by calling a yield function. Standard (push) iterators To make iterators easier to use, the new standard library package iter defines two types: Seq and Seq2. These are names for the iterator function types, the types that can be used with the for/range statement. The name Seq is short for sequence, as iterators loop through a sequence of values. package iter type Seq[V any] func(yield func(V) bool) type Seq2[K, V any] func(yield func(K, V) bool) // for now, no Seq0 The difference between Seq and Seq2 is just that Seq2 is a sequence of pairs, such as a key and a value from a map. In this post we’ll focus on Seq for simplicity, but most of what we say covers Seq2 as well. It’s easiest to explain how iterators work with an example. Here the Set method All returns a function. The return type of All is iter.Seq[E], so we know that it returns an iterator. // All is an iterator over the elements of s. func (s *Set[E]) All() iter.Seq[E] { return func(yield func(E) bool) { for v := range s.m { if !yield(v) { return } } } } The iterator function itself takes another function, the yield function, as an argument. The iterator calls the yield function with every value in the set. In this case the iterator, the function returned by Set.All, is a lot like the Set.Push function we saw earlier. This shows how iterators work: for some sequence of values, they call a yield function with each value in the sequence. If the yield function returns false, no more values are needed, and the iterator can just return, doing any cleanup that may be required. If the yield function never returns false, the iterator can just return after calling yield with all the values in the sequence. That’s how they work, but let’s acknowledge that the first time you see one of these, your first reaction is probably “there are a lot of functions flying around here.” You’re not wrong about that. Let’s focus on two things. The first is that once you get past the first line of this function’s code, the actual implementation of the iterator is pretty simple: call yield with every element of the set, stopping if yield returns false. for v := range s.m { if !yield(v) { return } } The second is that using this is really easy. You call s.All to get an iterator, and then you use for/range to loop over all the elements in s. The for/range statement supports any iterator, and this shows how easy that is to use. func PrintAllElements[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { for v := range s.All() { fmt.Println(v) } } In this kind of code s.All is a method that returns a function. We are calling s.All, and then using for/range to range over the function that it returns. In this case we could have made Set.All be an iterator function itself, rather than having it return an iterator function. However, in some cases that won’t work, such as if the function that returns the iterator needs to take an argument, or needs to do some set up work. As a matter of convention, we encourage all container types to provide an All method that returns an iterator, so that programmers don’t have to remember whether to range over All directly or whether to call All to get a value they can range over. They can always do the latter. If you think about it, you’ll see that the compiler must be adjusting the loop to create a yield function to pass to the iterator returned by s.All. There’s a fair bit of complexity in the Go compiler and runtime to make this efficient, and to correctly handle things like break or panic in the loop. We’re not going to cover any of that in this blog post. Fortunately the implementation details are not important when it comes to actually using this feature. Pull iterators We’ve now seen how to use iterators in a for/range loop. But a simple loop is not the only way to use an iterator. For example, sometimes we may need to iterate over two containers in parallel. How do we do that? The answer is that we use a different kind of iterator: a pull iterator. We’ve seen that a standard iterator, also known as a push iterator, is a function that takes a yield function as an argument and pushes each value in a sequence by calling the yield function. A pull iterator works the other way around: it is a function that is written such that each time you call it, it returns the next value in the sequence. We’ll repeat the difference between the two types of iterators to help you remember: A push iterator pushes each value in a sequence to a yield function. Push iterators are standard iterators in the Go standard library, and are supported directly by the for/range statement. A pull iterator works the other way around. Each time you call a pull iterator, it pulls another value from a sequence and returns it. Pull iterators are not supported directly by the for/range statement; however, it’s straightforward to write an ordinary for statement that loops through a pull iterator. In fact, we saw an example earlier when we looked at using the Set.Pull method. You could write a pull iterator yourself, but normally you don’t have to. The new standard library function iter.Pull takes a standard iterator, that is to say a function that is a push iterator, and returns a pair of functions. The first is a pull iterator: a function that returns the next value in the sequence each time it is called. The second is a stop function that should be called when we are done with the pull iterator. This is like the Set.Pull method we saw earlier. The first function returned by iter.Pull, the pull iterator, returns a value and a boolean that reports whether that value is valid. The boolean will be false at the end of the sequence. iter.Pull returns a stop function in case we don’t read through the sequence to the end. In the general case the push iterator, the argument to iter.Pull, may start goroutines, or build new data structures that need to be cleaned up when iteration is complete. The push iterator will do any cleanup when the yield function returns false, meaning that no more values are required. When used with a for/range statement, the for/range statement will ensure that if the loop exits early, through a break statement or for any other reason, then the yield function will return false. With a pull iterator, on the other hand, there is no way to force the yield function to return false, so the stop function is needed. Another way to say this is that calling the stop function will cause the yield function to return false when it is called by the push iterator. Strictly speaking you don’t need to call the stop function if the pull iterator returns false to indicate that it has reached the end of the sequence, but it’s usually simpler to just always call it. Here is an example of using pull iterators to walk through two sequences in parallel. This function reports whether two arbitrary sequences contain the same elements in the same order. // EqSeq reports whether two iterators contain the same // elements in the same order. func EqSeq[E comparable](s1, s2 iter.Seq[E]) bool { next1, stop1 := iter.Pull(s1) defer stop1() next2, stop2 := iter.Pull(s2) defer stop2() for { v1, ok1 := next1() v2, ok2 := next2() if !ok1 { return !ok2 } if ok1 != ok2 || v1 != v2 { return false } } } The function uses iter.Pull to convert the two push iterators, s1 and s2, into pull iterators. It uses defer statements to make sure that the pull iterators are stopped when we are done with them. Then the code loops, calling the pull iterators to retrieve values. If the first sequence is done, it returns true if the second sequence is also done, or false if it isn’t. If the values are different, it returns false. Then it loops to pull the next two values. As with push iterators, there is some complexity in the Go runtime to make pull iterators efficient, but this does not affect code that actually uses the iter.Pull function. Iterating on iterators Now you know everything there is to know about range over function types and about iterators. We hope you enjoy using them! Still, there are a few more things worth mentioning. Adapters An advantage of a standard definition of iterators is the ability to write standard adapter functions that use them. For example, here is a function that filters a sequence of values, returning a new sequence. This Filter function takes an iterator as an argument and returns a new iterator. The other argument is a filter function that decides which values should be in the new iterator that Filter returns. // Filter returns a sequence that contains the elements // of s for which f returns true. func Filter[V any](f func(V) bool, s iter.Seq[V]) iter.Seq[V] { return func(yield func(V) bool) { for v := range s { if f(v) { if !yield(v) { return } } } } } As with the earlier example, the function signatures look complicated when you first see them. Once you get past the signatures, the implementation is straightforward. for v := range s { if f(v) { if !yield(v) { return } } } The code ranges over the input iterator, checks the filter function, and calls yield with the values that should go into the output iterator. We’ll show an example of using Filter below. (There is no version of Filter in the Go standard library today, but one may be added in future releases.) Binary tree As an example of how convenient a push iterator can be to loop over a container type, let’s consider this simple binary tree type. // Tree is a binary tree. type Tree[E any] struct { val E left, right *Tree[E] } We won’t show the code to insert values into the tree, but naturally there should be some way to range over all the values in the tree. It turns out that the iterator code is easier to write if it returns a bool. Since the function types supported by for/range don’t return anything, the All method here returns a small function literal that calls the iterator itself, here called push, and ignores the bool result. // All returns an iterator over the values in t. func (t *Tree[E]) All() iter.Seq[E] { return func(yield func(E) bool) { t.push(yield) } } // push pushes all elements to the yield function. func (t *Tree[E]) push(yield func(E) bool) bool { if t == nil { return true } return t.left.push(yield) && yield(t.val) && t.right.push(yield) } The push method uses recursion to walk over the whole tree, calling yield on each element. If the yield function returns false, the method returns false all the way up the stack. Otherwise it just returns once the iteration is complete. This shows how straightforward it is to use this iterator approach to loop over even complex data structures. There is no need to maintain a separate stack to record the position within the tree; we can just use the goroutine call stack to do that for us. New iterator functions. Also new in Go 1.23 are functions in the slices and maps packages that work with iterators. Here are the new functions in the slices package. All and Values are functions that return iterators over the elements of a slice. Collect fetches the values out of an iterator and returns a slice holding those values. See the docs for the others. All([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] Values([]E) iter.Seq[E] Collect(iter.Seq[E]) []E AppendSeq([]E, iter.Seq[E]) []E Backward([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] Sorted(iter.Seq[E]) []E SortedFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E SortedStableFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E Repeat([]E, int) []E Chunk([]E, int) iter.Seq([]E) Here are the new functions in the maps package. All, Keys, and Values returns iterators over the map contents. Collect fetches the keys and values out of an iterator and returns a new map. All(map[K]V) iter.Seq2[K, V] Keys(map[K]V) iter.Seq[K] Values(map[K]V) iter.Seq[V] Collect(iter.Seq2[K, V]) map[K, V] Insert(map[K, V], iter.Seq2[K, V]) Standard library iterator example Here is an example of how you might use these new functions along with the Filter function we saw earlier. This function takes a map from int to string and returns a slice holding just the values in the map that are longer than some argument n. // LongStrings returns a slice of just the values // in m whose length is n or more. func LongStrings(m map[int]string, n int) []string { isLong := func(s string) bool { return len(s) >= n } return slices.Collect(Filter(isLong, maps.Values(m))) } The maps.Values function returns an iterator over the values in m. Filter reads that iterator and returns a new iterator that only contains the long strings. slices.Collect reads from that iterator into a new slice. Of course, you could write a loop to do this easily enough, and in many cases a loop will be clearer. We don’t want to encourage everybody to write code in this style all the time. That said, the advantage of using iterators is that this kind of function works the same way with any sequence. In this example, notice how Filter is using a map as an input and a slice as an output, without having to change the code in Filter at all. Looping over lines in a file Although most of the examples we’ve seen have involved containers, iterators are flexible. Consider this simple code, which doesn’t use iterators, to loop over the lines in a byte slice. This is easy to write and fairly efficient. nl := []byte{'\n'} // Trim a trailing newline to avoid a final empty blank line. for _, line := range bytes.Split(bytes.TrimSuffix(data, nl), nl) { handleLine(line) } However, bytes.Split does allocate and return a slice of byte slices to hold the lines. The garbage collector will have to do a bit of work to eventually free that slice. Here is a function that returns an iterator over the lines of some byte slice. After the usual iterator signatures, the function is pretty simple. We keep picking lines out of data until there is nothing left, and we pass each line to the yield function. // Lines returns an iterator over lines in data. func Lines(data []byte) iter.Seq[[]byte] { return func(yield func([]byte) bool) { for len(data) > 0 { line, rest, _ := bytes.Cut(data, []byte{'\n'}) if !yield(line) { return } data = rest } } } Now our code to loop over the lines of a byte slice looks like this. for line := range Lines(data) { handleLine(line) } This is just as easy to write as the earlier code, and is a bit more efficient because it doesn’t have allocate a slice of lines. Passing a function to a push iterator For our final example, we’ll see that you don’t have to use a push iterator in a range statement. Earlier we saw a PrintAllElements function that prints out each element of a set. Here is another way to print all the elements of a set: call s.All to get an iterator, then pass in a hand-written yield function. This yield function just prints a value and returns true. Note that there are two function calls here: we call s.All to get an iterator which is itself a function, and we call that function with our hand-written yield function. func PrintAllElements[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { s.All()(func(v E) bool { fmt.Println(v) return true }) } There’s no particular reason to write this code this way. This is just an example to show that the yield function isn’t magic. It can be any function you like. Update go.mod A final note: every Go module specifies the language version that it uses. That means that in order to use new language features in an existing module you may need to update that version. This is true for all new language features; it’s not something specific to range over function types. As range over function types is new in the Go 1.23 release, using it requires specifying at least Go language version 1.23. There are (at least) four ways to set the language version: On the command line, run go get go@1.23 (or go mod edit -go=1.23 to only edit the go directive). Manually edit the go.mod file and change the go line. Keep the older language version for the module as a whole, but use a //go:build go1.23 build tag to permit using range over function types in a specific file. By Ian Lance Taylor Photo by Daniel Morton on Unsplash This article is available on The Go Blog under a CC BY 4.0 DEED license. Introduction This is the blog post version of my talk at GopherCon 2024. https://youtu.be/i9zwUT9dlVc?embedable=true https://youtu.be/i9zwUT9dlVc?embedable=true Range over function types is a new language feature in the Go 1.23 release. This blog post will explain why we are adding this new feature, what exactly it is, and how to use it. Why? Since Go 1.18 we’ve had the ability to write new generic container types in Go. For example, let’s consider this very simple Set type, a generic type implemented on top of a map. Set // Set holds a set of elements. type Set[E comparable] struct { m map[E]struct{} } // New returns a new [Set]. func New[E comparable]() *Set[E] { return &Set[E]{m: make(map[E]struct{})} } // Set holds a set of elements. type Set[E comparable] struct { m map[E]struct{} } // New returns a new [Set]. func New[E comparable]() *Set[E] { return &Set[E]{m: make(map[E]struct{})} } Naturally a set type has a way to add elements and a way to check whether elements are present. The details here don’t matter. // Add adds an element to a set. func (s *Set[E]) Add(v E) { s.m[v] = struct{}{} } // Contains reports whether an element is in a set. func (s *Set[E]) Contains(v E) bool { _, ok := s.m[v] return ok } // Add adds an element to a set. func (s *Set[E]) Add(v E) { s.m[v] = struct{}{} } // Contains reports whether an element is in a set. func (s *Set[E]) Contains(v E) bool { _, ok := s.m[v] return ok } And among other things we will want a function to return the union of two sets. // Union returns the union of two sets. func Union[E comparable](s1, s2 *Set[E]) *Set[E] { r := New[E]() // Note for/range over internal Set field m. // We are looping over the maps in s1 and s2. for v := range s1.m { r.Add(v) } for v := range s2.m { r.Add(v) } return r } // Union returns the union of two sets. func Union[E comparable](s1, s2 *Set[E]) *Set[E] { r := New[E]() // Note for/range over internal Set field m. // We are looping over the maps in s1 and s2. for v := range s1.m { r.Add(v) } for v := range s2.m { r.Add(v) } return r } Let’s look at this implementation of the Union function for a minute. In order to compute the union of two sets, we need a way to get all the elements that are in each set. In this code we use a for/range statement over an unexported field of the set type. That only works if the Union function is defined in the set package. Union Union But there are a lot of reasons why someone might want to loop over all the elements in a set. This set package has to provide some way for its users to do that. How should that work? Push Set elements One approach is to provide a Set method that takes a function, and to call that function with every element in the Set. We’ll call this Push , because the Set pushes every value to the function. Here if the function returns false, we stop calling it. Set Push Set func (s *Set[E]) Push(f func(E) bool) { for v := range s.m { if !f(v) { return } } } func (s *Set[E]) Push(f func(E) bool) { for v := range s.m { if !f(v) { return } } } In the Go standard library, we see this general pattern used for cases like the sync.Map.Range method, the flag.Visit function, and the filepath.Walk function. This is a general pattern, not an exact one; as it happens, none of those three examples work quite the same way. sync.Map.Range flag.Visit filepath.Walk This is what it looks like to use the Push method to print all the elements of a set: you call Push with a function that does what you want with the element. Push Push func PrintAllElementsPush[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { s.Push(func(v E) bool { fmt.Println(v) return true }) } func PrintAllElementsPush[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { s.Push(func(v E) bool { fmt.Println(v) return true }) } Pull Set elements Another approach to looping over the elements of a Set is to return a function. Each time the function is called, it will return a value from the Set , along with a boolean that reports whether the value is valid. The boolean result will be false when the loop has gone through all the elements. In this case we also need a stop function that can be called when no more values are needed. Set Set This implementation uses a pair of channels, one for values in the set and one to stop returning values. We use a goroutine to send values on the channel. The next function returns an element from the set by reading from the element channel, and the stop function tells the goroutine to exit by closing the stop channel. We need the stop function to make sure that the goroutine exits when no more values are needed. next stop stop // Pull returns a next function that returns each // element of s with a bool for whether the value // is valid. The stop function should be called // when finished calling the next function. func (s *Set[E]) Pull() (func() (E, bool), func()) { ch := make(chan E) stopCh := make(chan bool) go func() { defer close(ch) for v := range s.m { select { case ch <- v: case <-stopCh: return } } }() next := func() (E, bool) { v, ok := <-ch return v, ok } stop := func() { close(stopCh) } return next, stop } // Pull returns a next function that returns each // element of s with a bool for whether the value // is valid. The stop function should be called // when finished calling the next function. func (s *Set[E]) Pull() (func() (E, bool), func()) { ch := make(chan E) stopCh := make(chan bool) go func() { defer close(ch) for v := range s.m { select { case ch <- v: case <-stopCh: return } } }() next := func() (E, bool) { v, ok := <-ch return v, ok } stop := func() { close(stopCh) } return next, stop } Nothing in the standard library works exactly this way. Both runtime.CallersFrames and reflect.Value.MapRange are similar, though they return values with methods rather than returning functions directly. runtime.CallersFrames reflect.Value.MapRange This is what it looks like to use the Pull method to print all the elements of a Set . You call Pull to get a function, and you repeatedly call that function in a for loop. Pull Set Pull func PrintAllElementsPull[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { next, stop := s.Pull() defer stop() for v, ok := next(); ok; v, ok = next() { fmt.Println(v) } } func PrintAllElementsPull[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { next, stop := s.Pull() defer stop() for v, ok := next(); ok; v, ok = next() { fmt.Println(v) } } Standardize the approach We’ve now seen two different approaches to looping over all the elements of a set. Different Go packages use these approaches and several others. That means that when you start using a new Go container package you may have to learn a new looping mechanism. It also means that we can’t write one function that works with several different types of containers, as the container types will handle looping differently. We want to improve the Go ecosystem by developing standard approaches for looping over containers. Iterators This is, of course, an issue that arises in many programming languages. The popular Design Patterns book , first published in 1994, describes this as the iterator pattern. You use an iterator to “provide a way to access the elements of an aggregate object sequentially without exposing its underlying representation.” What this quote calls an aggregate object is what I’ve been calling a container. An aggregate object, or container, is just a value that holds other values, like the Set type we’ve been discussing. Design Patterns book Set Like many ideas in programming, iterators date back to Barbara Liskov’s CLU language , developed in the 1970’s. CLU language Today many popular languages provide iterators one way or another, including, among others, C++, Java, Javascript, Python, and Rust. However, Go before version 1.23 did not. For/range As we all know, Go has container types that are built in to the language: slices, arrays, and maps. And it has a way to access the elements of those values without exposing the underlying representation: the for/range statement. The for/range statement works for Go’s built-in container types (and also for strings, channels, and, as of Go 1.22, int). The for/range statement is iteration, but it is not iterators as they appear in today’s popular languages. Still, it would be nice to be able to use for/range to iterate over a user-defined container like the Set type. Set However, Go before version 1.23 did not support this. Improvements in this release For Go 1.23 we’ve decided to support both for/range over user-defined container types, and a standardized form of iterators. We extended the for/range statement to support ranging over function types. We’ll see below how this helps loop over user-defined containers. We also added standard library types and functions to support using function types as iterators. A standard definition of iterators lets us write functions that work smoothly with different container types. Range over (some) function types The improved for/range statement doesn’t support arbitrary function types. As of Go 1.23 it now supports ranging over functions that take a single argument. The single argument must itself be a function that takes zero to two arguments and returns a bool; by convention, we call it the yield function. func(yield func() bool) func(yield func(V) bool) func(yield func(K, V) bool) func(yield func() bool) func(yield func(V) bool) func(yield func(K, V) bool) When we speak of an iterator in Go, we mean a function with one of these three types. As we’ll discuss below, there is another kind of iterator in the standard library: a pull iterator. When it is necessary to distinguish between standard iterators and pull iterators, we call the standard iterators push iterators. That is because, as we will see, they push out a sequence of values by calling a yield function. Standard (push) iterators To make iterators easier to use, the new standard library package iter defines two types: Seq and Seq2 . These are names for the iterator function types, the types that can be used with the for/range statement. The name Seq is short for sequence, as iterators loop through a sequence of values. Seq Seq2 Seq package iter type Seq[V any] func(yield func(V) bool) type Seq2[K, V any] func(yield func(K, V) bool) // for now, no Seq0 package iter type Seq[V any] func(yield func(V) bool) type Seq2[K, V any] func(yield func(K, V) bool) // for now, no Seq0 The difference between Seq and Seq2 is just that Seq2 is a sequence of pairs, such as a key and a value from a map. In this post we’ll focus on Seq for simplicity, but most of what we say covers Seq2 as well. Seq Seq2 Seq2 Seq Seq2 It’s easiest to explain how iterators work with an example. Here the Set method All returns a function. The return type of All is iter.Seq[E] , so we know that it returns an iterator. Set All All iter.Seq[E] // All is an iterator over the elements of s. func (s *Set[E]) All() iter.Seq[E] { return func(yield func(E) bool) { for v := range s.m { if !yield(v) { return } } } } // All is an iterator over the elements of s. func (s *Set[E]) All() iter.Seq[E] { return func(yield func(E) bool) { for v := range s.m { if !yield(v) { return } } } } The iterator function itself takes another function, the yield function, as an argument. The iterator calls the yield function with every value in the set. In this case the iterator, the function returned by Set.All , is a lot like the Set.Push function we saw earlier. Set.All Set.Push This shows how iterators work: for some sequence of values, they call a yield function with each value in the sequence. If the yield function returns false, no more values are needed, and the iterator can just return, doing any cleanup that may be required. If the yield function never returns false, the iterator can just return after calling yield with all the values in the sequence. That’s how they work, but let’s acknowledge that the first time you see one of these, your first reaction is probably “there are a lot of functions flying around here.” You’re not wrong about that. Let’s focus on two things. The first is that once you get past the first line of this function’s code, the actual implementation of the iterator is pretty simple: call yield with every element of the set, stopping if yield returns false. for v := range s.m { if !yield(v) { return } } for v := range s.m { if !yield(v) { return } } The second is that using this is really easy. You call s.All to get an iterator, and then you use for/range to loop over all the elements in s . The for/range statement supports any iterator, and this shows how easy that is to use. s.All s func PrintAllElements[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { for v := range s.All() { fmt.Println(v) } } func PrintAllElements[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { for v := range s.All() { fmt.Println(v) } } In this kind of code s.All is a method that returns a function. We are calling s.All , and then using for/range to range over the function that it returns. In this case we could have made Set.All be an iterator function itself, rather than having it return an iterator function. s.All s.All Set.All However, in some cases that won’t work, such as if the function that returns the iterator needs to take an argument, or needs to do some set up work. As a matter of convention, we encourage all container types to provide an All method that returns an iterator, so that programmers don’t have to remember whether to range over All directly or whether to call All to get a value they can range over. They can always do the latter. All All All If you think about it, you’ll see that the compiler must be adjusting the loop to create a yield function to pass to the iterator returned by s.All . There’s a fair bit of complexity in the Go compiler and runtime to make this efficient, and to correctly handle things like break or panic in the loop. We’re not going to cover any of that in this blog post. Fortunately the implementation details are not important when it comes to actually using this feature. s.All break panic Pull iterators We’ve now seen how to use iterators in a for/range loop. But a simple loop is not the only way to use an iterator. For example, sometimes we may need to iterate over two containers in parallel. How do we do that? The answer is that we use a different kind of iterator: a pull iterator. We’ve seen that a standard iterator, also known as a push iterator, is a function that takes a yield function as an argument and pushes each value in a sequence by calling the yield function. A pull iterator works the other way around: it is a function that is written such that each time you call it, it returns the next value in the sequence. We’ll repeat the difference between the two types of iterators to help you remember: A push iterator pushes each value in a sequence to a yield function. Push iterators are standard iterators in the Go standard library, and are supported directly by the for/range statement. A pull iterator works the other way around. Each time you call a pull iterator, it pulls another value from a sequence and returns it. Pull iterators are not supported directly by the for/range statement; however, it’s straightforward to write an ordinary for statement that loops through a pull iterator. In fact, we saw an example earlier when we looked at using the Set.Pull method. A push iterator pushes each value in a sequence to a yield function. Push iterators are standard iterators in the Go standard library, and are supported directly by the for/range statement. A pull iterator works the other way around. Each time you call a pull iterator, it pulls another value from a sequence and returns it. Pull iterators are not supported directly by the for/range statement; however, it’s straightforward to write an ordinary for statement that loops through a pull iterator. In fact, we saw an example earlier when we looked at using the Set.Pull method. not Set.Pull You could write a pull iterator yourself, but normally you don’t have to. The new standard library function iter.Pull takes a standard iterator, that is to say a function that is a push iterator, and returns a pair of functions. The first is a pull iterator: a function that returns the next value in the sequence each time it is called. The second is a stop function that should be called when we are done with the pull iterator. This is like the Set.Pull method we saw earlier. iter.Pull Set.Pull The first function returned by iter.Pull , the pull iterator, returns a value and a boolean that reports whether that value is valid. The boolean will be false at the end of the sequence. iter.Pull iter.Pull returns a stop function in case we don’t read through the sequence to the end. In the general case the push iterator, the argument to iter.Pull , may start goroutines, or build new data structures that need to be cleaned up when iteration is complete. The push iterator will do any cleanup when the yield function returns false, meaning that no more values are required. iter.Pull iter.Pull When used with a for/range statement, the for/range statement will ensure that if the loop exits early, through a break statement or for any other reason, then the yield function will return false. With a pull iterator, on the other hand, there is no way to force the yield function to return false, so the stop function is needed. break Another way to say this is that calling the stop function will cause the yield function to return false when it is called by the push iterator. Strictly speaking you don’t need to call the stop function if the pull iterator returns false to indicate that it has reached the end of the sequence, but it’s usually simpler to just always call it. Here is an example of using pull iterators to walk through two sequences in parallel. This function reports whether two arbitrary sequences contain the same elements in the same order. // EqSeq reports whether two iterators contain the same // elements in the same order. func EqSeq[E comparable](s1, s2 iter.Seq[E]) bool { next1, stop1 := iter.Pull(s1) defer stop1() next2, stop2 := iter.Pull(s2) defer stop2() for { v1, ok1 := next1() v2, ok2 := next2() if !ok1 { return !ok2 } if ok1 != ok2 || v1 != v2 { return false } } } // EqSeq reports whether two iterators contain the same // elements in the same order. func EqSeq[E comparable](s1, s2 iter.Seq[E]) bool { next1, stop1 := iter.Pull(s1) defer stop1() next2, stop2 := iter.Pull(s2) defer stop2() for { v1, ok1 := next1() v2, ok2 := next2() if !ok1 { return !ok2 } if ok1 != ok2 || v1 != v2 { return false } } } The function uses iter.Pull to convert the two push iterators, s1 and s2 , into pull iterators. It uses defer statements to make sure that the pull iterators are stopped when we are done with them. iter.Pull s1 s2 defer Then the code loops, calling the pull iterators to retrieve values. If the first sequence is done, it returns true if the second sequence is also done, or false if it isn’t. If the values are different, it returns false. Then it loops to pull the next two values. As with push iterators, there is some complexity in the Go runtime to make pull iterators efficient, but this does not affect code that actually uses the iter.Pull function. iter.Pull Iterating on iterators Now you know everything there is to know about range over function types and about iterators. We hope you enjoy using them! Still, there are a few more things worth mentioning. Adapters An advantage of a standard definition of iterators is the ability to write standard adapter functions that use them. For example, here is a function that filters a sequence of values, returning a new sequence. This Filter function takes an iterator as an argument and returns a new iterator. The other argument is a filter function that decides which values should be in the new iterator that Filter returns. Filter Filter // Filter returns a sequence that contains the elements // of s for which f returns true. func Filter[V any](f func(V) bool, s iter.Seq[V]) iter.Seq[V] { return func(yield func(V) bool) { for v := range s { if f(v) { if !yield(v) { return } } } } } // Filter returns a sequence that contains the elements // of s for which f returns true. func Filter[V any](f func(V) bool, s iter.Seq[V]) iter.Seq[V] { return func(yield func(V) bool) { for v := range s { if f(v) { if !yield(v) { return } } } } } As with the earlier example, the function signatures look complicated when you first see them. Once you get past the signatures, the implementation is straightforward. for v := range s { if f(v) { if !yield(v) { return } } } for v := range s { if f(v) { if !yield(v) { return } } } The code ranges over the input iterator, checks the filter function, and calls yield with the values that should go into the output iterator. We’ll show an example of using Filter below. Filter (There is no version of Filter in the Go standard library today, but one may be added in future releases.) Filter Binary tree As an example of how convenient a push iterator can be to loop over a container type, let’s consider this simple binary tree type. // Tree is a binary tree. type Tree[E any] struct { val E left, right *Tree[E] } // Tree is a binary tree. type Tree[E any] struct { val E left, right *Tree[E] } We won’t show the code to insert values into the tree, but naturally there should be some way to range over all the values in the tree. It turns out that the iterator code is easier to write if it returns a bool. Since the function types supported by for/range don’t return anything, the All method here returns a small function literal that calls the iterator itself, here called push , and ignores the bool result. All push // All returns an iterator over the values in t. func (t *Tree[E]) All() iter.Seq[E] { return func(yield func(E) bool) { t.push(yield) } } // push pushes all elements to the yield function. func (t *Tree[E]) push(yield func(E) bool) bool { if t == nil { return true } return t.left.push(yield) && yield(t.val) && t.right.push(yield) } // All returns an iterator over the values in t. func (t *Tree[E]) All() iter.Seq[E] { return func(yield func(E) bool) { t.push(yield) } } // push pushes all elements to the yield function. func (t *Tree[E]) push(yield func(E) bool) bool { if t == nil { return true } return t.left.push(yield) && yield(t.val) && t.right.push(yield) } The push method uses recursion to walk over the whole tree, calling yield on each element. If the yield function returns false, the method returns false all the way up the stack. Otherwise it just returns once the iteration is complete. push This shows how straightforward it is to use this iterator approach to loop over even complex data structures. There is no need to maintain a separate stack to record the position within the tree; we can just use the goroutine call stack to do that for us. New iterator functions. Also new in Go 1.23 are functions in the slices and maps packages that work with iterators. Here are the new functions in the slices package. All and Values are functions that return iterators over the elements of a slice. Collect fetches the values out of an iterator and returns a slice holding those values. See the docs for the others. All Values Collect All([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] Values([]E) iter.Seq[E] Collect(iter.Seq[E]) []E AppendSeq([]E, iter.Seq[E]) []E Backward([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] Sorted(iter.Seq[E]) []E SortedFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E SortedStableFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E Repeat([]E, int) []E Chunk([]E, int) iter.Seq([]E) All([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] All([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] Values([]E) iter.Seq[E] Values([]E) iter.Seq[E] Collect(iter.Seq[E]) []E Collect(iter.Seq[E]) []E AppendSeq([]E, iter.Seq[E]) []E AppendSeq([]E, iter.Seq[E]) []E Backward([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] Backward([]E) iter.Seq2[int, E] Sorted(iter.Seq[E]) []E Sorted(iter.Seq[E]) []E SortedFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E SortedFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E SortedStableFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E SortedStableFunc(iter.Seq[E], func(E, E) int) []E Repeat([]E, int) []E Repeat([]E, int) []E Chunk([]E, int) iter.Seq([]E) Chunk([]E, int) iter.Seq([]E) Here are the new functions in the maps package. All , Keys , and Values returns iterators over the map contents. Collect fetches the keys and values out of an iterator and returns a new map. All Keys Values Collect All(map[K]V) iter.Seq2[K, V] Keys(map[K]V) iter.Seq[K] Values(map[K]V) iter.Seq[V] Collect(iter.Seq2[K, V]) map[K, V] Insert(map[K, V], iter.Seq2[K, V]) All(map[K]V) iter.Seq2[K, V] All(map[K]V) iter.Seq2[K, V] Keys(map[K]V) iter.Seq[K] Keys(map[K]V) iter.Seq[K] Values(map[K]V) iter.Seq[V] Values(map[K]V) iter.Seq[V] Collect(iter.Seq2[K, V]) map[K, V] Collect(iter.Seq2[K, V]) map[K, V] Insert(map[K, V], iter.Seq2[K, V]) Insert(map[K, V], iter.Seq2[K, V]) Standard library iterator example Here is an example of how you might use these new functions along with the Filter function we saw earlier. This function takes a map from int to string and returns a slice holding just the values in the map that are longer than some argument n . Filter n // LongStrings returns a slice of just the values // in m whose length is n or more. func LongStrings(m map[int]string, n int) []string { isLong := func(s string) bool { return len(s) >= n } return slices.Collect(Filter(isLong, maps.Values(m))) } // LongStrings returns a slice of just the values // in m whose length is n or more. func LongStrings(m map[int]string, n int) []string { isLong := func(s string) bool { return len(s) >= n } return slices.Collect(Filter(isLong, maps.Values(m))) } The maps.Values function returns an iterator over the values in m . Filter reads that iterator and returns a new iterator that only contains the long strings. slices.Collect reads from that iterator into a new slice. maps.Values m Filter slices.Collect Of course, you could write a loop to do this easily enough, and in many cases a loop will be clearer. We don’t want to encourage everybody to write code in this style all the time. That said, the advantage of using iterators is that this kind of function works the same way with any sequence. In this example, notice how Filter is using a map as an input and a slice as an output, without having to change the code in Filter at all. Looping over lines in a file Although most of the examples we’ve seen have involved containers, iterators are flexible. Consider this simple code, which doesn’t use iterators, to loop over the lines in a byte slice. This is easy to write and fairly efficient. nl := []byte{'\n'} // Trim a trailing newline to avoid a final empty blank line. for _, line := range bytes.Split(bytes.TrimSuffix(data, nl), nl) { handleLine(line) } nl := []byte{'\n'} // Trim a trailing newline to avoid a final empty blank line. for _, line := range bytes.Split(bytes.TrimSuffix(data, nl), nl) { handleLine(line) } However, bytes.Split does allocate and return a slice of byte slices to hold the lines. The garbage collector will have to do a bit of work to eventually free that slice. bytes.Split Here is a function that returns an iterator over the lines of some byte slice. After the usual iterator signatures, the function is pretty simple. We keep picking lines out of data until there is nothing left, and we pass each line to the yield function. // Lines returns an iterator over lines in data. func Lines(data []byte) iter.Seq[[]byte] { return func(yield func([]byte) bool) { for len(data) > 0 { line, rest, _ := bytes.Cut(data, []byte{'\n'}) if !yield(line) { return } data = rest } } } // Lines returns an iterator over lines in data. func Lines(data []byte) iter.Seq[[]byte] { return func(yield func([]byte) bool) { for len(data) > 0 { line, rest, _ := bytes.Cut(data, []byte{'\n'}) if !yield(line) { return } data = rest } } } Now our code to loop over the lines of a byte slice looks like this. for line := range Lines(data) { handleLine(line) } for line := range Lines(data) { handleLine(line) } This is just as easy to write as the earlier code, and is a bit more efficient because it doesn’t have allocate a slice of lines. Passing a function to a push iterator For our final example, we’ll see that you don’t have to use a push iterator in a range statement. Earlier we saw a PrintAllElements function that prints out each element of a set. Here is another way to print all the elements of a set: call s.All to get an iterator, then pass in a hand-written yield function. This yield function just prints a value and returns true. PrintAllElements s.All Note that there are two function calls here: we call s.All to get an iterator which is itself a function, and we call that function with our hand-written yield function. s.All func PrintAllElements[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { s.All()(func(v E) bool { fmt.Println(v) return true }) } func PrintAllElements[E comparable](s *Set[E]) { s.All()(func(v E) bool { fmt.Println(v) return true }) } There’s no particular reason to write this code this way. This is just an example to show that the yield function isn’t magic. It can be any function you like. Update go.mod A final note: every Go module specifies the language version that it uses. That means that in order to use new language features in an existing module you may need to update that version. This is true for all new language features; it’s not something specific to range over function types. As range over function types is new in the Go 1.23 release, using it requires specifying at least Go language version 1.23. There are (at least) four ways to set the language version: On the command line, run go get go@1.23 (or go mod edit -go=1.23 to only edit the go directive). Manually edit the go.mod file and change the go line. Keep the older language version for the module as a whole, but use a //go:build go1.23 build tag to permit using range over function types in a specific file. On the command line, run go get go@1.23 (or go mod edit -go=1.23 to only edit the go directive). go get go@1.23 go mod edit -go=1.23 go Manually edit the go.mod file and change the go line. go.mod go Keep the older language version for the module as a whole, but use a //go:build go1.23 build tag to permit using range over function types in a specific file. //go:build go1.23 By Ian Lance Taylor By Ian Lance Taylor Photo by Daniel Morton on Unsplash Photo by Daniel Morton on Unsplash Daniel Morton Unsplash This article is available on The Go Blog under a CC BY 4.0 DEED license. This article is available on The Go Blog under a CC BY 4.0 DEED license. The Go Blog The Go Blog