By a Machiavellian stratagem the primary larva

The Glow-Worm and Other Beetles by Jean-Henri Fabre, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here . HYPERMETAMORPHOSIS CHAPTER V. HYPERMETAMORPHOSIS By a Machiavellian stratagem the primary larva of the Oil-beetle or the Sitaris has penetrated the Anthophora's cell; it has settled on the egg, which is its first food and its life-raft in one. What becomes of it once the egg is exhausted? Let us, to begin with, go back to the larva of the Sitaris. By the end of a week the Anthophora's egg has been drained dry by the parasite and is reduced to the envelope, a shallow skiff which preserves the tiny creature from the deadly contact of the honey. It is on this skiff that the first transformation takes place, whereafter the larva, which is now organized to live in a glutinous environment, drops off the raft into the pool of honey and leaves its empty skin, split along the back, clinging to the pellicle of the egg. At this stage we see floating motionless on the honey a milk-white atom, oval, flat and a twelfth of an inch long. This is the larva of the Sitaris in its new form. With the aid of a lens we can distinguish the fluctuations of the digestive canal, which is gorging itself with honey; and along the circumference of the flat, elliptical back we perceive a double row of breathing-pores which, thanks to their position, cannot be choked by the viscous liquid. Before describing the larva in detail we will wait for it to attain its full development, which cannot take long, for the provisions are rapidly diminishing. The rapidity however is not to be compared with that with which the gluttonous larvæ of the Anthophora consume their food. Thus, on visiting the dwellings of the Anthophoræ for the last time, on the 25th of June, I found that the Bee's larvæ had all finished their rations and attained their full development, whereas those of the Sitares, still immersed in the honey, were, for the most part, only half the size which they must finally attain. This is yet another reason why the Sitares should destroy an egg which, were it to develop, would produce a voracious larva, capable of starving them in a very short time. When rearing the larvæ myself in test-tubes, I have found that the Sitares take thirty-five to forty days to finish their mess of honey and that the larvæ of the Anthophora spend less than a fortnight over the same meal. It is in the first half of July that the Sitaris-grubs reach their full dimensions. At this period the cell usurped by the parasite contains nothing beyond a full-fed larva and, in a corner, a heap of reddish droppings. This larva is soft and white, about half an inch in length and a quarter of an inch wide at its broadest part. Seen from above as it floats on the honey, it is elliptical in form, tapering gradually towards the front and more suddenly towards the rear. Its ventral surface is highly convex; its dorsal surface, on the contrary, is almost flat. When the larva is floating on the liquid honey, it is as it were steadied by the excessive development of the ventral surface immersed in the honey, which enables it to acquire an equilibrium that is of the greatest importance to its welfare. In fact, the breathing-holes, arranged without means of protection on either edge of the almost flat back, are level with the viscous liquid and would be choked by that sticky glue at the least false movement, if a suitably ballasted hold did not prevent the larva from heeling over. Never was corpulent abdomen of greater use: thanks to this plumpness of the belly the larva is protected from asphyxia. Its segments number thirteen, including the head. This head is pale, soft, like the rest of the body, and very small compared with the rest of the creature. The antennæ are excessively short and consist of two cylindrical joints. I have vainly looked for the eyes with a powerful magnifying-glass. In its former state, the larva, subject to strange migrations, obviously needs the sense of sight and is provided with four ocelli. In its present state, of what use would eyes be to it at the bottom of a clay cell, where the most absolute darkness prevails? The labrum is prominent, is not distinctly divided from the head, is curved in front and edged with pale and very fine bristles. The mandibles are small, reddish toward the tips, blunt and hollowed out spoonwise on the inner side. Below the mandibles is a fleshy part crowned with two very tiny nipples. This is the lower lip with its two palpi. It is flanked right and left by two other parts, likewise fleshy, adhering closely to the lip and bearing at the tip a rudimentary palp consisting of two or three very tiny joints. These two parts are the future jaws. All this apparatus of lips and jaws is completely immobile and in a rudimentary condition which is difficult to describe. They are budding organs, still faint and embryonic. The labrum and the complicated lamina formed by the lip and the jaws leave between them a narrow slit in which the mandibles work. The legs are merely vestiges, for, though they consist of three tiny cylindrical joints, they are barely a fiftieth of an inch in length. The creature is unable to make use of them, not only in the liquid honey upon which it lives, but even on a solid surface. If we take the larva from the cell and place it on a hard substance, to observe it more readily, we see that the inordinate protuberance of the abdomen, by lifting the thorax from the ground, prevents the legs from finding a support. Lying on its side, the only possible position because of its conformation, the larva remains motionless or only makes a few lazy, wriggling movements of the abdomen, without ever stirring its feeble limbs, which for that matter could not assist it in any way. In short, the tiny creature of the first stage, so active and alert, is succeeded by a ventripotent grub, deprived of movement by its very obesity. Who would recognize in this clumsy, flabby, blind, hideously pot-bellied creature, with nothing but a sort of stumps for legs, the elegant pigmy of but a little while back, armour-clad, slender and provided with highly perfected organs for performing its perilous journeys? Lastly, we count nine pairs of stigmata: one pair on the mesothorax and the rest on the first eight segments of the abdomen. The last pair, that on the eighth abdominal segment, consists of stigmata so small that to detect them we have to gather their position by that in the succeeding states of the larva and to pass a very patient magnifying-glass along the direction of the other pairs. These are as yet but vestigial stigmata. The others are fairly large, with pale, round, flat edges. If in its first form the Sitaris-larva is organized for action, to obtain possession of the coveted cell, in its second form it is organized solely to digest the provisions acquired. Let us take a glance at its internal structure and in particular at its digestive apparatus. Here is a strange thing: this apparatus, in which the hoard of honey amassed by the Anthophora is to be engulfed, is similar in every respect to that of the adult Sitaris, who possibly never takes food. We find in both the same very short oesophagus, the same chylific ventricle, empty in the perfect insect, distended in the larva with an abundant orange-coloured pulp; in both the same gall-bladders, four in number, connected with the rectum by one of their extremities. Like the perfect insect, the larva is devoid of salivary glands or any other similar apparatus. Its nervous system comprises eleven ganglia, not counting the oesophageal collar, whereas in the perfect insect there are only seven: three for the thorax, of which the last two are contiguous, and four for the abdomen. When its rations are finished the larva remains a few days in a motionless condition, ejecting from time to time a few reddish droppings until the digestive canal is completely cleared of its orange-coloured pulp. Then the creature contracts itself, huddles itself together; and before long we see coming detached from its body a transparent, slightly crumpled and extremely fine pellicle, forming a closed bag, in which the successive transformations will take place henceforth. On this epidermal bag, this sort of transparent leather bottle, formed by the larva's skin detached all of a piece, without a slit of any kind, we can distinguish the several well-preserved external organs: the head, with its antennæ, mandibles, paws and palpi; the thoracic segments, with their vestiges of legs; the abdomen, with its chain of breathing-holes still connected one to another by tracheal threads. Then beneath this pellicle, which is so delicate that it can hardly bear the most cautious touch, we see a soft, white mass taking shape, a mass which in a few hours acquires a firm, horny consistency and a vivid yellow hue. The transformation is now complete. Let us tear the fine gauze bag enclosing the organism which has just come into being and direct our investigation to this third form of the Sitaris-larva. It is an inert, segmented body, with an oval outline, a horny consistency, just like that of pupæ and chrysalids, and a bright-yellow colour, which we can best describe by likening it to that of a lemon-drop. Its upper surface forms a double inclined plane with a very blunt ridge; its lower surface is at first flat, but, as the result of evaporation, becomes more concave daily, leaving a projecting rim all around its oval outline. Lastly, its two extremities or poles are slightly flattened. The major axis of the lower surface averages half an inch in length and the minor axis a quarter of an inch. At the cephalic pole of this body is a sort of mask, modelled roughly on the head of the larva, and at the opposite pole a small circular disk deeply wrinkled at the centre. The three segments that come after the head bear each a pair of very minute knobs, hardly visible without the lens: these are, to the legs of the larva in its previous form, what the cephalic mask is to the head of the same larva. They are not organs, but indications, landmarks placed at the points where these organs will appear later. On either side we count nine stigmata, set as before on the mesothorax and the first eight abdominal segments. The first eight breathing-holes are dark brown and stand out plainly against the yellow colour of the body. They consist of small, shiny, conical knobs, perforated at the top with a round hole. The ninth stigma, though fashioned like the others, is ever so much smaller; it cannot be distinguished without the lens. The anomaly, already so manifest in the change from the first form to the second, becomes even more so here; and we do not know what name to give to an organism without a standard of comparison, not only in the order of Beetles, but in the whole class of insects. While, on the one hand, this organism offers many points of resemblance to the pupæ of the Flies in its horny consistency, in the complete immobility of its various segments, in the all but absolute absence of relief which would enable one to distinguish the parts of the perfect insect; while, on the other hand, it approximates to the chrysalids, because the creature, to attain this condition, has to shed its skin, as the caterpillars do, it differs from the pupa because it has for covering not the surface skin, which has become horny, but rather one of the inner skins of the larva; and it differs from the chrysalids by the absence of mouldings which in the latter betray the appendages of the perfect insect. Lastly, it differs yet more profoundly from the pupa and the chrysalis because from both these organisms the perfect insect springs straightway, whereas that which follows what we are considering is simply a larva like that which went before. I shall suggest, to denote this curious organism, the term pseudochrysalis; and I shall reserve the names primary larva, secondary larva and tertiary larva to denote, in a couple of words, each of the three forms under which the Sitares possess all the characteristics of larvæ. Although the Sitaris, on assuming the form of the pseudochrysalis, is transfigured outwardly to the point of baffling the science of entomological phases, this is not so inwardly. I have at every season of the year examined the viscera of the pseudochrysalids, which generally remain stationary for a whole year, and I have never observed other forms among their organs than those which we find in the secondary larva. The nervous system has undergone no change. The digestive apparatus is absolutely void and, because of its emptiness, appears only as a thin cord, sunk, lost amid the adipose sacs. The stercoral intestine has more substance; its outlines are better defined. The four gall-bladders are always perfectly distinct. The adipose tissue is more abundant than ever: it forms by itself the whole contents of the pseudochrysalis, for in the matter of volume the insignificant threads of the nervous system and the digestive apparatus count for nothing. It is the reserve upon which life must draw for its future labours. A few Sitares remain hardly a month in the pseudochrysalis stage. The other phases are achieved in the course of August; and at the beginning of September the insect attains the perfect state. But as a rule the development is slower; the pseudochrysalis goes through the winter; and it is not, at the earliest, until June in the second year that the final transformations take place. Let us pass in silence over this long period of repose, during which the Sitaris, in the form of a pseudochrysalis, slumbers at the bottom of its cell, in a sleep as lethargic as that of a germ in its egg, and come to the months of June and July in the following year, the period of what we might call a second hatching. The pseudochrysalis is still enclosed in the delicate pouch formed of the skin of the secondary larva. Outside, nothing fresh has happened; but important changes have taken place inside. I have said that the pseudochrysalis displayed an upper surface arched like a hog's back and a lower surface at first flat and then more and more concave. The sides of the double inclined plane of the upper or dorsal surface also share in this depression occasioned by the evaporation of the fluid constituents; and a time comes when these sides are so depressed that a section of the pseudochrysalis through a plane perpendicular to its axis would be represented by a curvilinear triangle with blunted corners and inwardly convex sides. This is the appearance displayed by the pseudochrysalis during the winter and spring. But in June it has lost this withered appearance; it represents a perfect balloon, an ellipsoid of which the sections perpendicular to the major axis are circles. Something has also come to pass of greater importance than this expansion, which may be compared with that which we obtain by blowing into a wrinkled bladder. The horny integuments of the pseudochrysalis have become detached from their contents, all of a piece, without a break, just as happened the year before with the skin of the secondary larva; and they thus form a fresh vesicular envelope, free from any adhesion to the contents and itself enclosed in the pouch formed of the secondary larva's skin. Of these two bags without outlet, one of which is enclosed within the other, the outer is transparent, flexible, colourless and extremely delicate; the second is brittle, almost as delicate as the first, but much less translucent because of its yellow colouring, which makes it resemble a thin flake of amber. On this second sac are found the stigmatic warts, the thoracic studs and so forth, which we noted on the pseudochrysalis. Lastly, within its cavity we catch a glimpse of something the shape of which at once recalls to mind the secondary larva. And indeed, if we tear the double envelope which protects this mystery, we recognize, not without astonishment, that we have before our eyes a new larva similar to the secondary. After one of the strangest transformations, the creature has gone back to its second form. To describe the new larva is unnecessary, for it differs from the former in only a few slight details. In both there is the same head, with its various appendages barely outlined; the same vestiges of legs, the same stumps transparent as crystal. The tertiary larva differs from the secondary only by its abdomen, which is less fat, owing to the absolute emptiness of the digestive apparatus; by a double chain of fleshy cushions extending along each side; by the rim of the stigmata, crystalline and slightly projecting, but less so than in the pseudochrysalis; by the ninth pair of breathing-holes, hitherto rudimentary but now almost as large as the rest; lastly by the mandibles ending in a very sharp point. Evicted from its twofold sheath, the tertiary larva makes only very lazy movements of contraction and dilation, without being able to advance, without even being able to maintain its normal position, because of the weakness of its legs. It usually remains motionless, lying on its side, or else displays its drowsy activity merely by feeble, wormlike movements. By dint of these alternate contractions and dilations, indolent though they be, the larva nevertheless contrives to turn right round in the sort of shell with which the pseudochrysalidal integuments provide it, when by accident it finds itself placed head downwards; and this operation is all the more difficult inasmuch as the larva almost exactly fills the cavity of the shell. The creature contracts, bends its head under its belly and slides its front half over its hinder half by wormlike movements so slow that the lens can hardly detect them. In less than a quarter of an hour the larva, at first turned upside down, finds itself again head uppermost. I admire this gymnastic feat, but have some difficulty in understanding it, so small is the space which the larva, when at rest in its cell, leaves unoccupied, compared with that which we should be justified in expecting from the possibility of such a reversal. The larva does not long enjoy the privilege which enables it to resume inside its cell, when this is moved from its original position, the attitude which it prefers, that is to say, with its head up. Two days, at most, after its first appearance it relapses into an inertia as complete as that of the pseudochrysalis. On removing it from its amber shell, we see that its faculty of contracting or dilating at will is so completely paralysed that the stimulus of a needle is unable to provoke it, though the integuments have retained all their flexibility and though no perceptible change has occurred in the organization. The irritability, therefore, which in the pseudochrysalis is suspended for a whole year, reawakens for a moment, to relapse instantly into the deepest torpor. This torpor will be partly dispelled only at the moment of the passing into the nymphal stage, to return immediately afterwards and last until the insect attains the perfect state. Further, on holding larvæ of the third form, or nymphs enclosed in their cells, in an inverted position, in glass tubes, we never see them regain an erect position, however long we continue the experiment. The perfect insect itself, during the time that it is enclosed in the shell, cannot regain it, for lack of the requisite flexibility. This total absence of movement in the tertiary larva, when a few days old, and also in the nymph, together with the smallness of the space left free in the shell, would necessarily lead to the conviction, if we had not witnessed the first moments of the tertiary larva, that it is absolutely impossible for the creature to turn right round. And now see to what curious inferences this lack of observations made at the due moment may lead us. We collect some pseudochrysalids and heap them in a glass jar in all possible positions. The favourable season arrives; and with very legitimate astonishment we find that, in a large number of shells, the larva or nymph occupies an inverted position, that is to say, the head is turned towards the anal extremity of the shell. In vain we watch these reversed bodies for any indications of movement; in vain we place the shells in every imaginable position, to see if the creature will turn round; in vain, once more, we ask ourselves where the free space is which this turning would demand. The illusion is complete: I have been taken in by it myself; and for two years I indulged in the wildest conjectures to account for this lack of correspondence between the shell and its contents, to explain, in short, a fact which is inexplicable once the propitious moment has passed. On the natural site, in the cells of the Anthophora, this apparent anomaly never occurs, because the secondary larva, when on the point of transformation into the pseudochrysalis, is always careful to place its head uppermost, according as the axis of the cell more or less nearly approaches the vertical. But, when the pseudochrysalids are placed higgledy-piggledy in a box or jar, all those which are upside down will later contain inverted larvæ or nymphs. After four changes of form so profound as those which I have described, one might reasonably expect to find some modifications of the internal organization. Nevertheless, nothing is changed; the nervous system is the same in the tertiary larva as in the earlier phases; the reproductive organs do not yet show; and there is no need to mention the digestive apparatus, which remains invariable even in the perfect insect. The duration of the tertiary larva is a bare four or five weeks, which is also about the duration of the second. In July, when the secondary larva passes into the pseudochrysalid stage, the tertiary larva passes into the nymphal stage, still inside the double vesicular envelope. Its skin splits along the back in front; and with the assistance of a few feeble contractions, which reappear at this juncture, it is thrust behind in the shape of a little ball. There is therefore nothing here that differs from what happens in the other Beetles. Nor does the nymph which succeeds this tertiary larva present any peculiarity: it is the perfect insect in swaddling-bands, yellowish white, with its various external members, clear as crystal, displayed under the abdomen. A few weeks elapse, during which the nymph partly dons the livery of the adult state; and, in about a month, the insect moults for a last time, in the usual manner, in order to attain its final form. The wing-cases are now of a uniform yellowish white, as are the wings, the abdomen and the greater part of the legs; very nearly all the rest of the body is of a glossy black. In the space of twenty-four hours, the wing-cases assume their half-black, half-russet colouring; the wings grow darker; and the legs finish turning black. This done, the adult organism is completed. However, the Sitaris remains still a fortnight in the intact shell, ejecting at intervals white droppings of uric acid, which it pushes back together with the shreds of its last two sloughs, those of the tertiary larva and of the nymph. Lastly, about the middle of August, it tears the double bag that contains it, pierces the lid of the Anthophora's cell, enters a corridor and appears outside in quest of the other sex. I have told how, while digging in search of the Sitaris, I found two cells belonging to Meloe cicatricosus. One contained an Anthophora's egg; with this egg was a yellow Louse, the primary larva of the Meloe. The history of this tiny creature we know. The second cell also was full of honey. On the sticky liquid floated a little white larva, about a sixth of an inch in length and very different from the other little white larvæ belonging to Sitares. The rapid fluctuations of the abdomen showed that it was eagerly drinking the strong-scented nectar collected by the Bee. This larva was the young Meloe in the second period of its development. I was not able to preserve these two precious cells, which I had opened wide to examine the contents. On my return from Carpentras, I found that their honey had been spilt by the motion of the carriage and that their inhabitants were dead. On the 25th of June, a fresh visit to the nests of the Anthophoræ furnished me with two larvæ like the foregoing, but much larger. One of them was on the point of finishing its store of honey, the other still had nearly half left. The first was put in a place of safety with a thousand precautions, the second was at once immersed in alcohol. These larvæ are blind, soft, fleshy, yellowish white, covered with a fine down visible only under the lens, curved into a fish-hook like the larvæ of the Lamellicorns, to which they bear a certain resemblance in their general configuration. The segments, including the head, number thirteen, of which nine are provided with breathing-holes with a pale, oval rim. These are the mesothorax and the first eight abdominal segments. As in the Sitaris-larvæ, the last pair of stigmata, that of the eighth segment of the abdomen, is less developed than the rest. The head is horny, of a light brown colour. The epistoma is edged with brown. The labrum is prominent, white and trapezoidal. The mandibles are black, strong, short, obtuse, only slightly curved, sharp-edged and furnished each with a broad tooth on the inner side. The maxillary and labial palpi are brown and shaped like very small studs with two or three joints to them. The antennæ, inserted just at the base of the mandibles, are brown, and consist of three sections: the first is thick and globular; the two others are much smaller in diameter and cylindrical. The legs are short, but fairly strong, able to serve the creature for crawling or digging; they end in a strong black claw. The length of the larva when fully developed is one inch. As far as I can judge from the dissection of the specimen preserved in alcohol, whose viscera were affected by being kept too long in that liquid, the nervous system consists of eleven ganglia, not counting the oesophageal collar; and the digestive apparatus does not differ perceptibly from that of an adult Oil-beetle. The larger of the two larvæ of the 25th of June, placed in a test-tube with what remained of its provisions, assumed a new form during the first week of the following month. Its skin split along the front dorsal half and, after being pushed half back, left partly uncovered a pseudochrysalis bearing the closest analogy with that of the Sitares. Newport did not see the larva of the Oil-beetle in its second form, that which it displays when it is eating the mess of honey hoarded by the Bees, but he did see its moulted skin half-covering the pseudochrysalis which I have just mentioned. From the sturdy mandibles and the legs armed with a powerful claw which he observed on this moulted skin, Newport assumed that, instead of remaining in the same Anthophora-cell, the larva, which is capable of burrowing, passes from one cell to another in search of additional nourishment. This suspicion seems to me to be well-founded, for the size which the larva finally attains exceeds the proportions which the small quantity of honey enclosed in a single cell would lead us to expect. Let us go back to the pseudochrysalis. It is, as in the Sitares, an inert body, of a horny consistency, amber-coloured and divided into thirteen segments, including the head. Its length is 20 millimetres.1 It is slightly curved into an arc, highly convex on the dorsal surface, almost flat on the ventral surface and edged with a projecting fillet which marks the division between the two. The head is only a sort of mask on which certain features are vaguely carved in still relief, corresponding with the future parts of the head. On the thoracic segments are three pairs of tubercles, corresponding with the legs of the recent larva and the future insect. Lastly, there are nine pairs of stigmata, one pair on the mesothorax and the eight following pairs on the first eight segments of the abdomen. The last pair is rather smaller than the rest, a peculiarity which we have already noted in the larva which precedes the pseudochrysalis. 1 .787 inch.—Translator's Note. On comparing the pseudochrysalids of the Oil-beetles and Sitares, we observe a most striking similarity between the two. The same structure occurs in both, down to the smallest details. We find on either side the same cephalic masks, the same tubercles occupying the place of the legs, the same distribution and the same number of stigmata and, lastly, the same colour, the same rigidity of the integuments. The only points of difference are in the general appearance, which is not the same in the two pseudochrysalids, and in the covering formed by the cast skin of the late larva. In the Sitares, in fact, this cast skin constitutes a closed bag, a pouch completely enveloping the pseudochrysalis; in the Oil-beetles, on the contrary, it is split down the back and pushed to the rear and, consequently, only half-covers the pseudochrysalis. The post-mortem examination of the only pseudochrysalis in my possession showed me that, similarly to that which happens in the Sitares, no change occurred in the organization of the viscera, notwithstanding the profound transformations which take place externally. In the midst of innumerable little sacs of adipose tissue is buried a thin thread in which we easily recognize the essential features of the digestive apparatus, both of the preceding larval form and of the perfect insect. As for the medullary cord of the abdomen, it consists, as in the larva, of eight ganglia. In the perfect insect it comprises only four. I could not say positively how long the Oil-beetle remains in the pseudochrysalid form; but, if we consider the very complete analogy between the evolution of the Oil-beetles and that of the Sitares, there is reason to believe that a few pseudochrysalids complete their transformation in the same year, while others, in greater numbers, remain stationary for a whole year and do not attain the state of the perfect insect until the following spring. This is also the opinion expressed by Newport. Be this as it may, I found at the end of August one of these pseudochrysalids which had already attained the nymphal stage. It is with the help of this precious capture that I shall be able to finish the story of the Oil-beetle's development. The horny integuments of the pseudochrysalis are split along a fissure which includes the whole ventral surface and the whole of the head and runs up the back of the thorax. This cast skin, which is stiff and keeps its shape, is half-enclosed, as was the pseudochrysalis, in the skin shed by the secondary larva. Lastly, through the fissure, which divides it almost in two, a Meloe-nymph half-emerges; so that, to all appearances, the pseudochrysalis has been followed immediately by the nymph, which does not happen with the Sitares, which pass from the first of these two states to the second only by assuming an intermediary form closely resembling that of the larva which eats the store of honey. But these appearances are deceptive, for, on removing the nymph from the split sheath formed by the integuments of the pseudochrysalis, we find, at the bottom of this sheath, a third cast skin, the last of those which the creature has so far rejected. This skin is even now adhering to the nymph by a few tracheal filaments. If we soften it in water, we easily recognize that it possesses an organization almost identical with that which preceded the pseudochrysalis. In the latter case only, the mandibles and the legs are not so robust. Thus, after passing through the pseudochrysalid stage, the Oil-beetles for some time resume the preceding form, almost without modification. The nymph comes next. It presents no peculiarities. The only nymph that I have reared attained the perfect insect state at the end of September. Under ordinary conditions would the adult Oil-beetle have emerged from her cell at this period? I do not think so, since the pairing and egg-laying do not take place until the beginning of spring. She would no doubt have spent the autumn and the winter in the Anthophora's dwelling, only leaving it in the spring following. It is even probable that, as a rule, the development is even slower and that the Oil-beetles, like the Sitares, for the most part spend the cold season in the pseudochrysalid state, a state well-adapted to the winter torpor, and do not achieve their numerous forms until the return of the warm weather. The Sitares and Meloes belong to the same family, that of the Meloidæ.2 Their strange transformations must probably extend throughout the group; indeed, I had the good fortune to discover a third example, which I have not hitherto been able to study in all its details after twenty-five years of investigation. On six occasions, no oftener, during this long period I have set eyes on the pseudochrysalis which I am about to describe. Thrice I obtained it from old Chalicodoma-nests built upon a stone, nests which I at first attributed to the Chalicodoma of the Walls and which I now refer with greater probability to the Chalicodoma of the Sheds. I once extracted it from the galleries bored by some wood-eating larva in the trunk of a dead wild pear-tree, galleries afterwards utilized for the cells of an Osmia, I do not know which. Lastly, I found a pair of them in between the row of cocoons of the Three-pronged Osmia (O. tridentata, DUF.), who provides a home for her larvæ in a channel dug in the dry bramble stems. The insect in question therefore is a parasite of the Osmiæ. When I extract it from the old Chalicodoma-nests, I have to attribute it not to this Bee but to one of the Osmiæ (O. tricornis and O. Latreillii) who, when making their nests, utilize the old galleries of the Mason-bee. 2 Later classifiers place both in the family of the Cantharidæ.—Translator's Note. The most nearly complete instances that I have seen furnishes me with the following data: the pseudochrysalis is very closely enveloped in the skin of the secondary larva, a skin consisting of fine transparent pellicle, without any rent whatever. This is the pouch of the Sitaris, save that it lies in immediate contact with the body enclosed. On this jacket we distinguish three pairs of tiny legs, reduced to short vestiges, to stumps. The head is in place, showing quite perceptibly the fine mandibles and the other parts of the mouth. There is no trace of eyes. Each side has a white edging of shrivelled tracheæ, running from one stigmatic orifice to another. Next comes the pseudochrysalis, horny, currant-red, cylindrical, cone-shaped at both ends, slightly convex on the dorsal surface and concave on the ventral surface. It is covered with delicate, prominent spots, sprinkled very close together; it takes a lens to show them. It is 1 centimetre long and 4 millimetres wide.3 We can distinguish a large knob of a head, on which the mouth is vaguely outlined; three pairs of little shiny brown specks, which are the hardly perceptible vestiges of the legs; and on each side a row of eight black specks, which are the stigmatic orifices. The first speck stands by itself, in front; the seven others, divided from the first by an empty space, form a continuous row. Lastly, at the opposite end is a little pit, the sign of the anal pore. 3 .393 x .156 inch.—Translator's Note. Of the six pseudochrysalids which a lucky accident placed at my disposal, four were dead; the other two were furnished by Zonitis mutica. This justified my forecast, which from the first, with analogy for my guide, made me attribute these curious organizations to the genus Zonitis. The meloidal parasite of the Osmiæ, therefore, is recognized. We have still to make the acquaintance of the primary larva, which gets itself carried by the Osmia into the cell full of honey, and the tertiary larva, the one which, at a given moment, must be found contained in the pseudochrysalis, a larva which will be succeeded by the nymph. Let us recapitulate the strange metamorphoses which I have sketched. Every Beetle-larva, before attaining the nymphal stage, undergoes a greater or smaller number of moults, of changes of skin; but these moults, which are intended to favour the development of the larva by ridding it of covering that has become too tight for it, in no way alter its external shape. After any moult that it may have undergone, the larva retains the same characteristics. If it begin by being tough, it will not become tender; if it be equipped with legs, it will not be deprived of them later; if it be provided with ocelli, it will not become blind. It is true that the diet of these non-variable larvæ remains the same throughout their duration, as do the conditions under which they are destined to live. But suppose that this diet varies, that the environment in which they are called upon to live changes, that the circumstances accompanying their development are liable to great changes: it then becomes evident that the moult may and even must adapt the organization of the larva to these new conditions of existence. The primary larva of the Sitaris lives on the body of the Anthophora. Its perilous peregrinations demand agility of movement, long-sighted eyes and masterly balancing-appliances; it has, in fact, a slender shape, ocelli, legs and special organs adapted to averting a fall. Once inside the Bee's cell, it has to destroy the egg; its sharp mandibles, curved into hooks, will fulfil this office. This done, there is a change of diet: after the Anthophora's egg the larva proceeds to consume the ration of honey. The environment in which it has to live also changes: instead of balancing itself on a hair of the Anthophora, it has now to float on a sticky fluid; instead of living in broad daylight, it has to remain plunged in the profoundest darkness. Its sharp mandibles must therefore become hollowed into a spoon that they may scoop up the honey; its legs, its cirri, its balancing-appliances must disappear as useless and even harmful, since all these organs can only involve the larva in serious danger, by causing it to stick in the honey; its slender shape, its horny integuments, its ocelli, being no longer necessary in a dark cell where movement is impossible, where there are no rough encounters to be feared, may likewise give place to complete blindness, to soft integuments, to a heavy, slothful form. This transfiguration, which everything shows to be indispensable to the life of the larva, is effected by a simple moult. We do not so plainly perceive the necessity of the subsequent forms, which are so abnormal that nothing like them is known in all the rest of the insect class. The larva which is fed on honey first adopts a false chrysalid appearance and afterwards goes back to its earlier form, though the necessity for these transformations escapes us entirely. Here I am obliged to record the facts and to leave the task of interpreting them to the future. The larva of the Meloidæ, therefore, undergo four moults before attaining the nymphal state; and after each moult their characteristics alter most profoundly. During all these external changes, the internal organization remains unchangingly the same; and it is only at the moment of the nymph's appearance that the nervous system becomes concentrated and that the reproductive organs are developed, absolutely as in the other Beetles. Thus, to the ordinary metamorphoses which make a Beetle pass successively through the stages of larva, nymph and perfect insect, the Meloidæ add others which repeatedly transform the larva's exterior, without introducing any modification of its viscera. This mode of development, which preludes the customary entomological forms by the multiple transfigurations of the larva, certainly deserves a special name: I suggest that of hypermetamorphosis. Let us now recapitulate the more prominent facts of this essay. The Sitares, the Meloes, the Zonites and apparently other Meloidæ, possibly all of them, are in their earliest infancy parasites of the harvesting Bees. The larva of the Meloidæ, before reaching the nymphal state, passes through four forms, which I call the primary larva, the secondary larva, the pseudochrysalis and the tertiary larva. The passage from one of these forms to the next is effected by a simple moult, without any changes in the viscera. The primary larva is leathery and settles on the Bee's body. Its object is to get itself carried into a cell filled with honey. On reaching the cell, it devours the Bee's egg; and its part is played. The secondary larva is soft and differs completely from the primary larva in its external characteristics. It feeds upon the honey contained in the usurped cell. The pseudochrysalis is a body deprived of all movement and clad in horny integuments which may be compared with those of the pupæ and chrysalids. On these integuments we see a cephalic mask without distinct or movable parts, six tubercles indicating the legs and nine pairs of breathing-holes. In the Sitares the pseudochrysalis is enclosed in a sort of sealed pouch and in the Zonites in a tight-fitting bag formed of the skin of the secondary larva. In the Meloes it is simply half-sheathed in the split skin of the secondary larva. The tertiary larva reproduces almost exactly the peculiarities of the second; it is enclosed, in the Sitares and probably also the Zonites, in a double vesicular envelope formed of the skin of the secondary larva and the slough of the pseudochrysalis. In the Meloes, it is half-enclosed in the split integuments of the pseudochrysalis, even as these, in their turn, are half-enclosed in the skin of the secondary larva. From the tertiary larva onwards the metamorphoses follow their habitual course, that is to say, this larva becomes a nymph; and this nymph the perfect insect. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Jean-Henri Fabre (2009). The Glow-Worm and Other Beetles. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. 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