THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS

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THE SENTENCE AND ITS ELEMENTS

In the preceding chapters we have seen words as they are used singly. We studied their pronunciation and the way in which they were formed to express a definite meaning. In this chapter we shall begin a review of grammar, a study of words not according to their pronunciation or their definition, but according to their use as they are arranged with other words to express complete ideas. The simplest group into which words are thus arranged is the sentence, consisting of two important parts, the subject and the predicate. The subject is the part about which something is told, and the predicate is the part that tells about the subject; as,

There are several different kinds of sentences, named according to the meaning which they express. They are as follows:

The declarativesentence states a fact.
Theinterrogativesentence asks a question.
Theimperativesentence commands or entreats.
Theexclamatory sentence expresses deep feeling.

Illustrations

*Declarative: *John closed the door.
*Interrogative: *Did John close the door?
*Imperative: *Close the door.
*Exclamatory: *What a noise the door made!

Sentences are classified, also, according to their structure or form. If a sentence has one subject and one predicate, it is a simple sentence. If it is made up of two independent parts, it is a compound sentence. If it has one independent part and one or more dependent parts, each of which contains a subject and a predicate of its own, the sentence is complex. The independent part of the sentence is called a principal clause, and the dependent part is called a subordinate clause. A phrase is also a dependent part of a sentence, but it differs from a subordinate clause in that it contains no subject or predicate. Both phrases and subordinate clauses are used as parts of speech, as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Thus we have the following definitions:

A simple sentence contains one principal clause.

A compound sentence contains two or more principal clauses.

A complex sentence contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

A phrase is a group of related words used as a part of speech. (See Exercises 68 and 69.)

A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate. A subordinate clause is used as a part of speech. It usually has an introductory word to distinguish it from a principal clause. (See Exercise 71.)

Illustrations Simple sentence: To-day most of the world's big questions are business questions. Complex sentence: The view that business is only humdrum routine and sordid money-making needs revising, since most of the world's big questions are business questions. Compound sentence: Many people still belittle business, calling it humdrum routine and sordid money-making, but this view needs revising.

Phrase: (a) of the world's big questions. (b) calling it humdrum routine and sordid money-making. Subordinate clause: (a) that business is only humdrum routine and sordid money-making. (b) since most of the world's big questions are business questions.

Exercise 59 Write two of each of the following kinds of sentences: a. Declarative, b. Interrogative, c. Imperative, d. Exclamatory.

Examine each of the sentences below and tell

a. Whether it is simple, complex, or compound.

b. Its subject and its predicate.

c. Its phrases and its subordinate clause (if there are any).

1. Your subscription expires with this issue.

2. This special offer will continue until the tenth of November.

3. The last shipment of castings that you made to us is decidedly unsatisfactory.

4. Your imitation typewritten letters have greatly assisted us in the sale of our property, and we thank you for calling our attention to them.

5. The advertised poster was sent to you to-day in a special tube.

6. Without doubt you will be interested in the booklet which we enclose.

7. The machine which is standing there has just been repaired.

8. The wheel that holds the type may be changed in an instant by the operator.

9. Whenever he wishes, the operator may write in different sizes of type on the same sheet of paper.

10. Many of our styles have been copied exactly from the best designs that have recently been displayed in the Parisian exhibits.

11. Why are the department stores acquiring motor wagons?

12. One reason is the economy of the motor wagon.

13. Economy does not entirely explain the keenness which department stores are displaying in acquiring motor wagons.

14. In such establishments the quick delivery of merchandise is a necessity.

15. The best means of transportation must be employed, or a loss of trade will follow.

16. Any one can cite examples that prove that faults in delivery cause a loss of trade.

17. Machine service develops fewer errors than horse service (develops).

18. The area which department stores serve is being greatly increased from year to year, and not even the establishment of the parcel post has avoided the necessity for sending package merchandise too far distant for conveyance by horses.

19. Electric machines usually make the house-to-house package deliveries, and gasoline trucks, besides hauling furniture, transfer large loads from the store or warehouse to the distributing stations.

20. In one store each transfer truck is loaded twice daily with fifty trunks containing parcels.

Exercise 60—Sentence Errors

S. 1. The Baby Blunder.—In writing, one of the most elementary forms of correctness is shown in the proper division into sentences. The ability instinctively to end a sentence at the right place is called the "sentence sense." Students who do not possess it or who have not learned the difference between sentences, subordinate clauses, and phrases frequently make the mistake of setting off too much or too little for one sentence. For example, they run two sentences together as one; as,

Wrong: Motor wagons are economical, department stores of all large cities are acquiring them.

The sentence, as written above, contains one form of the sentence error—one of the worst possible mistakes in writing. It is sometimes called the comma fault or the baby blunder. For brevity we shall call it S 1 (sentence error number one). Motor wagons are economical is a principal clause. Department stores of all large cities are acquiring them is also a principal clause. Two such clauses may not stand in the same sentence separated only by a comma. To correct, divide into two sentences; as,

Right: Motor wagons are economical. Department stores of all large cities are acquiring them.

Sometimes the thought in the two principal clauses is closely connected. In that case they may be put into the same sentence, provided they are properly connected or separated. Use a comma plus a coördinate conjunction (as and, or, but) to connect them, or a semicolon (;) to separate them.

Be particularly careful of the conjunctive adverbs so, then, therefore, thus, also, still, otherwise, however, hence, consequently, moreover, nevertheless. When they are used to join the principal clauses of a compound sentence, a comma is not sufficient punctuation between the clauses. A semicolon or a comma and a coördinate conjunction must be used.

Wrong: He had been a good customer, so they were sorry to lose his trade.

Right: He had been a good customer; so they were sorry to lose his trade.

Right: He had been a good customer, and so they were sorry to lose his trade.

S. 2.—The first form of the sentence error (S 1) is made by using too much for one sentence. The second form (S 2) is made by using too little. It consists in writing a subordinate clause or a phrase as a sentence; as,

1. Wrong: I told her I would attend to the matter at my earliest convenience. Probably on my way from work in the evening.

2. Wrong: His doctor advised him to go to Arizona. Which he decided to do.

Exercise 61 Each sentence should express one complete thought. Some of the following are really two sentences (S 1), and some are only parts of sentences (S 2). Correct each, naming the mistake.

1. You will find the booklet interesting it is also instructive.

2. Up to last January he was a salesman for Colgate & Co. since then he has opened a business of his own.

3. I didn't know you had come, when did you arrive?

4. Did any one take the newspaper, I left it here only a moment ago.

5. I shall take my vacation in September have you had yours?

6. I must go now good-bye I'll see you on Saturday.

7. The opening sentence held the man's attention, he read it again and again.

8. I'll have to run to catch the train, otherwise I shall be late for work.

9. The advertisement is attractive, still it has not paid well.

10. We wished to reduce office drudgery therefore we installed adding and addressing machines.

11. These problems all require a knowledge of square root for example, take the fourth.

12. Do you expect to come home for Christmas or shall you stay in New York I don't remember now which you said.

13. First I read a statement that recommended the bonds then I read an article that condemned them without question the result was that I didn't know what to do.

14. One-half of the statements are here, the others are in the safe.

15. If your name is not correct on this envelope, please notify us we wish to insure your receiving our bulletin regularly.

16. The supply of fruit was greater than the demand, that is why fruit was cheap.

17. Flies are dangerous. Especially in a sick room from which they carry germs to others.

18. In the country the trees were loaded with fruit, their branches had to be propped so that they would not break.

19. When he was twenty-three years of age, Richard T. Crane, the late millionaire head of the immense Crane Manufacturing Company, came to Chicago, he started a brass foundry, which grew into the present giant establishment.

20. We spent last summer in the Bitter Root Valley we camped within view of Willoughby Falls.

21. I want to congratulate you on your appointment I heard of it only yesterday.

22. It surely was not I whom you saw I wonder who it could have been.

23. Not one of us has a salary of three thousand dollars so we do not worry over the income tax.

24. Please send me the booklet you offered in the Business Magazine, I'd also like particulars of your advertised discount sale of typewriters.

25. Sooner or later shingles are sure to warp and curl, thus they pull out the nails and allow the rain to beat in, furthermore, shaded shingles soon rot and allow the water to soak through.

26. This sealing and stamping machine is endorsed by business men in all our large cities nevertheless it is not expensive.

27. If you wish to prove the excellence of our paper, just tear off a corner of this sheet then tear off a corner of your present letterhead with a magnifying glass examine both torn edges.

28. The superior paper will show long, linen fibers the poorer, on the other hand, will have short, woody fibers.

29. When a German army is on the march, it stops every twenty minutes for a rest. Experiments having shown that a soldier can cover more ground when he is given this period of relaxation.

30. Two thousand convicts will be released according to a plan worked out by the governor; five hundred will be given their freedom at once, and, if the plan is a success one thousand five hundred others will be released. One-half their wages of fifty cents a day to go to their families and one-half to the penitentiary fund. If they leave the state or commit any crime while they are on parole, to serve the balance of their term and an extension of time. They will be put to work on roads and bridges the counties need several thousand such laborers but cannot pay union prices.

Exercise 62

Rewrite the following, dividing into sentences:

1 Dear Sir: There is no safer way to invest money than in a good first mortgage on city real estate by a good mortgage we mean one that is properly drawn and with such security as absolutely insures the holder against loss we have made a specialty of first mortgage loans, and we offer investors the benefit of our wide experience in such matters we investigate properties frequently and keep investors informed on their investment we look after all details and collections without extra charge you will find it to your interest to consult us.

Yours truly,

2 Stick to your legitimate business do not go out into outside operations few men have brains enough for more than one business to dabble in stocks, to put a few thousand dollars into a mine, a few more into a manufactory, and a few more into an invention is enough to ruin any man be content with fair returns do not become greedy do not think that men are happy in proportion as they are rich and therefore do not aim too high be content with moderate wealth make friends a time will come when all the money in the world will not be worth to you as much as one staunch friend.

3 Sacramento City is a great commercial center its wholesale and jobbing business extends hundreds of miles to the north, south, west, and east it is fast becoming a substantial manufacturing center large six and eight story buildings are rapidly taking the place of the old two story structures a new city hall has just been completed which cost $150,000 and a new court house $1,000,000 the city has recently issued bonds amounting to $800,000 for new schools scarcely a week passes without recording some new enterprise all the main highways are macadamized so that automobile travel is possible every day of the year and the farmer can haul his produce to market at a minimum cost market conditions are good and any class of produce finds ready sale at remunerative prices.—(From an advertisement.)

Classify the sentences that you have formed in the foregoing exercise:

1. According to meaning.

2. According to form.

Exercise 63 —Parts of Speech

There are eight different kinds of words called parts of speech, which are used to make sentences. They are as follows:

Noun: The horse is brown. Pronoun: He is the best horse of all. Verb: He galloped to town. Adjective: The brown horse is my favorite. Adverb: He runs swiftly. Preposition: We shall ride to town. Conjunction: The night is clear and cold. Interjection: Oh! My horse stumbled.

Thus a noun names something. A word that stands for a noun is a pronoun. Sometimes a different part of speech is used like a noun, and for the time being it becomes a noun. The verb is a very important part of speech, since without it there can be no sentence. The verb makes an assertion, asks a question, or gives a command. Adjectives are words that belong to or describe nouns or pronouns. Adverbs go with or modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Prepositions and conjunctions connect. Prepositions join their objects to other words in the sentence; conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. An interjection, such as the exclamation oh, is used without having grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence. A preposition always takes an object, the preposition and its object making a phrase. Grouping this information, we have:

A word is not always the same part of speech. We may say, "Did you starch the clothes?" in which case starch is a verb. A grocer may say, "The starch in these packages is always clean." In this sentence starch is a noun. The part of speech depends entirely on the way the word is used.

In the following, name the part of speech of each word in italic. Judge by the way the word is used in the sentence.

1. The desks have green pads.

2. Green is a restful color.

3. In the valley is a mill, which grinds flour. It is a flour mill.

4. I saw him stretch out his hand.

5. The stretch of waste land amazed him.

6. Europeans say that Americans waste more than they use.

7. One of our great problems is how to lessen waste.

8. After the stormy night, the day dawned bright and clear.

9. He has been working night and day.

10. The old man went home sad and weary.

11. Home is the best place in the world.

12. We must fine you for such an offense.

13. Your fine is five dollars.

14. We use fine sand in our concrete.

15. I can talk better than I can write.

16. John wrote the better circular.

17. Talking will not better the matter.

18. Young people should learn to respect their betters.

19. Suddenly there was a pause in the music.

20. Did you see those men pause?

21. He was our guide for he knew the ins and outs of the place.

22. Have you ever been in the house?

23. Where are you going—in or out?

24. Good apples are expensive.

25. The good of the people is our first consideration.

26. I shall not go if it rains.

27. What is the use of saying if?

28. I like to see her just like this, for in like mood I do not know her like.

29. Little drops of water make the mighty ocean.

30. I can do little of the work until the typewriter is repaired.

31. Do not belittle your work.

32. She studies too little.

Exercise 64

Each of the following may be used as different parts of speech. Write sentences illustrating as many uses as possible for each word.

Exercise 65

Tell which of the words in italic are adjectives and which are adverbs. Remember that an adjective goes with a noun or pronoun; an adverb with another adverb, an adjective, or a verb, and usually answers the question how? when? where? why? how much? or how long?

1. You are walking too fast.

2. Send perishable articles by fast freight.

3. He has been a well man since he has stopped working indoors.

4. He writes very well.

5. The fire is bright.

6. It burns brightly.

7. That is a very poor reason.

8. The berries look good, but they taste sour.

9. They are not good berries.

10. The sun shone brilliant above us. (Compare with brilliantly.)

11. The bookkeeper looks angry.

12. He looked at us angrily.

13. The flowers are sweet.

14. They smell sweet. (May we say, The flowers smell sweetly?)

15. Act frankly, speak gently.

16. Let your actions be frank, your speech gentle.

17. Laborers complain that they have to work too hard.

Exercise 66

Change the following adjectives to adverbs. In each case use both parts of speech in sentences.

Exercise 67 Tell which of the Words in italic are prepositions and which are adverbs. Remember that a preposition begins a phrase. It must be followed by an object.

1. He is the best man in the office.

2. John was leaving as I came in this evening.

3. He did not have his coat on.

4. It was hanging over his arm.

5. He stood on the top step several minutes, wondering whether he should wear the coat.

6. The handle fell off as I took the cup off the shelf.

7. The aeroplane flies over the city.

8. I am going over to the factory.

Write sentences using above, across, down, up, underneath both as adverbs and as prepositions.

Exercise 68—Prepositional Phrases

Illustrations Adjective: The opinions of some people must be taken with caution.

Adverb: We shall return within a year.

Noun: From New York to San Francisco is a long trip.

What part of speech is each of the italicized phrases below? Remember that an adjective modifies a noun; an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

1. The waves are rolling in, white with foam.

2. A million dollars was invested in the business.

3. I will abide on thy right side and keep the bridge with thee.

4. In summer milk soon turns sour.

5. I have come for help.

6. The people on the bridge cheered for hours.

7. He threw up his hat for joy.

8. On the table before them stood a deer roasted whole.

9. We shall stay here until spring.

10. We came in sight of the king's palace.

11. We drove to the factory today with the superintendent.

12. He works from sunrise to sunset.

Exercise 69

The phrase introduced by a preposition is the most common. A list of prepositions follows. They should be learned.

Write three sentences containing prepositional adjective phrases.

Prepositional adverbial phrases may express the following ideas:

Time, telling when something happened. Place, telling where something happened. Manner, telling how something happened. Means, telling how something happened. Cause or purpose, telling why something happened. Degree, telling how long something lasted; how far it went; how much it cost, etc. Agent, telling by whom it was done. Accompaniment, telling with whom it was done. Write a sentence containing a prepositional phrase telling:

Exercise 70 Name all the prepositional phrases in Exercise 179, explaining whether they are adjective or adverbial.

Exercise 71—The Clause A subordinate clause, like a phrase, is a group of words used as a part of speech, the chief difference being that a clause must have a subject and a predicate. Clauses are introduced

1. By relative pronouns:

who, whose, whom, which, what, tha

t 2. By subordinate conjunctions:

Illustrations

Does the clause or the simple adverb give the more definite idea?

Write three sentences illustrating adjective clauses, three illustrating adverbial clauses, and three illustrating noun clauses.

Exercise 72

Name all the clauses in Exercises 179, 185, and 186. Explain the use of each.

Exercise 73

Write sentences using each of the following words to introduce a phrase, and to introduce a clause.

1. after

2. before

3. for

4. since

5. until

Remember that just as a preposition must be followed by an object to form a phrase, a conjunction must be followed by a subject to form a clause.

Exercise 74

Name the complete subject in the following. Then name the simple subject, explaining by what elements—words, phrases, or clauses—it is modified.

Name the complete predicate. Then name the simple predicate, explaining by what elements the verb is modified.

1. Modern business cannot be carried on by old-fashioned methods.

2. When a man engages in business, he buys or sells.

3. The great routes of trade have changed from time to time.

4. Your order will be filled within a few days.

5. Both blanks were properly filled out at the time.

6. Means of travel have developed from the slowly moving caravan to the palatial railway coach.

7. Commerce originated when one human being demanded something which had to be supplied by some one else.

8. The latest American and European styles will be displayed in our new millinery department, which will be formally opened on the first of March.

9. The prosperity of nations rests very largely on the six inches of soil between the surface and the subsoil of the territory.

10. One of the greatest losses to the Ohio farm lands in the floods of 1913 came about because the water took off the top soil from the hillside and valleys and carried the vegetable material with it.

11. The conserving of the top soil is one of the greatest problems in national prosperity.

12. We trust that shipment about September 8 will be satisfactory to you, as it is the best that we can do under the circumstances.

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