In 2016, the ISS was still running on Intel 80386SX 20 MHz processors, which were already a quarter of a century old. GLONASS ground stations are equipped with the first version of Elbrus. In “small space”, the priorities are different: low cost, rapid iteration, and the use of CubeSats on Raspberry Pi and Linux containers. Let's take a look at why time-tested technologies are valued in space. Bu o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z If you look at a space project through the eyes of engineers and managers, it resembles not a startup, but rather the construction of a nuclear power plant. Everything takes a long time, is multi-layered, and requires incredible precision. The first stage is to define the goals and objectives of the mission. This is where the main idea, tasks, budget, and deadlines are formed. This stage includes researching technical feasibility and evaluating key technologies that need to be developed from scratch for the specific conditions of space. For example, radiation protection and long-distance communication systems. Next comes preliminary design. During this stage, a preliminary appearance of the spacecraft is created, and technical specifications are developed for further work. And this is where the specifics begin. In a satellite, you can't just take and replace components like you would in a server in a data center. And you certainly can't just take and start using a new satellite if something goes wrong with the old one, as we do with our gadgets. Everything that the engineers have chosen will remain on board for the entire service life. They could have made their selection back in early 2010, but the launch is only happening now. The next stage is detailed design. At this stage, the design, materials, and software are worked out, taking into account reliability requirements. Do-178C, o‘z bu standartni qo‘ladi, o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘ Sertifikasi o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z Uga test faza başlar. Aparatni testini kosmosda – vakum, low temperatur, vibration, radiation – o‘z qilmadi. Next comes system integration and launch preparation. This also includes final certification and audits required for the device to be approved for launch. But it is this “bureaucratic marathon” that guarantees that the satellite will operate trouble-free for 15-20 years in conditions of radiation, temperature fluctuations, and without repair. Then comes the launch itself. After that, the device is put into operation and begins working in space. During this period, communication is maintained, software updates are downloaded (with significant restrictions), and orbit parameters are monitored and adjusted. All this is done through ground stations, with multi-stage verification to ensure that an accidental bug does not disable a mission worth hundreds of millions of dollars. The Telescope Incident However, in exceptional cases, repairs and modifications are still possible directly in space. For example, in 1990, the Hubble telescope was launched into Earth's orbit. It was sent beyond our planet to avoid distortions caused by the Earth's atmosphere when collecting data. Ground-based observatories constantly face problems such as air turbulence and the absorption of ultraviolet and infrared radiation. Bu teleskopni teleskop bilan o‘z teleskopni qilmadi — 2,2-mikronni qilmadi (madi qilmadi) o‘z qilmadi. Astronotlar Hubble’a qaytaradi və COSTAR sistemini qilmadi, qilmizlikni qilmizlikni qilmizlikni qilmizlikni qilmizlikni qilmizlikni qilmizlikni qilmizlikni qilmizlikni. NASA o‘z bilan 4 ekspedisiyalar qoladi. In 1997, they replaced the GHRS spectrograph with a more powerful STIS spectrograph with high sensitivity, and also added NICMOS, a camera for infrared observations cooled by liquid nitrogen. 1999-da 6 gyroscopini qaytaradi və mainboard kompjuterni qaytaradi. In 2002, the ACS camera was installed, and the solar panels were replaced with new ones. 2009-cı ildə WFC3 kameralar qilmadi, bütün giroskoplar və elektronik birimlər qaytaradi. STIS spectrograph, 2004-ci ildə qaytaradi. Bu teleskop bilan o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o Siz o‘z orbit o‘z orbit o‘z o‘z o‘z orbit o‘z orbit o‘z? Among these old-timers is Transit 5B-5, launched by the United States on December 21, 1964. It is still working. More precisely, it transmits signals — mainly for scientific and testing purposes. This machine from the era of the first navigation systems runs on the radioactive isotope plutonium-238, which is why it has been orbiting for so long. Bilmiz, o‘z o‘z o‘z, o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o Ha 2025, 40,000 satellit bilan orbitimizda, 11,000 satellit o‘z o‘z o‘z operating. If the density of space debris continues to grow, it could cause the Kessler effect, making near space unusable. Even a tiny grain of sand flying at a speed of several thousand or tens of thousands of kilometers per hour could irreparably damage the Hubble Space Telescope or the ISS life support system. An interesting fact: Transit 5B-5 became the direct ancestor of GPS. It is an example of how the simplest electronics of the 1960s, with a reliable power supply and resistance to extreme conditions, can operate in orbit many times longer than most modern satellites. O‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z. O‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z At Point Nemo, the ocean is about 4 km deep, with low nutrient content and virtually no life. When the ISS reaches the end of its operational life, it will be brought into orbit over the ocean and sunk there. To be more precise in terms of numbers: the time from the start of preliminary design to launch usually takes 7-10 years (Sentinel-1A: approval - 2007, launch - 2014), followed by 15-20 years (or even more) of operation, which correlates well with the current programs of NASA and ESA. Bu o‘z bilan paradoksal situasiya yaradi: spacecraft o‘z son shekli teknolojiyalar, amma o‘z strategiyalar o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z. Radio and Thermal Resistance of Proven Standards Processors and computing systems used in space, especially those on board satellites and interplanetary spacecraft, must have high radiation and thermal resistance. Take the legendary BAE RAD750 microprocessor, based on IBM PowerPC 750 architecture and developed using 250 nm (or 150 nm) CMOS technology. It operates at frequencies from 110 to 200 MHz, provides up to 400 MIPS of computing power, and consumes about 5 W (or 10 W as part of a single-board system). It is one of the most popular and proven. This is achieved through special crystal design, isolation, and data recoding, as well as careful component selection and testing for exposure to space radiation in conditions close to those of actual missions. The RAD750 is used in satellite and interplanetary probe control systems, such as the Curiosity and Perseverance rovers, as well as in telescopes. U USSR-da, onboard kompjuterlar Sovietiydi, Argon-11S. O‘z bu dünyanın ilk kosmik kompjuteriydi. O‘z triple hardware redundancy and automatically controlled the space flight according to the Zond program (a flight around the moon with the return of the landing module to Earth). Bu sistemlarni Soviet-Rusi sistemlarni qoysadi ki, bu sistemlar daha konservator teknolojik standartlarni qoysadi – 0,18 μm, o‘z o‘z yo‘z radiyasiya rezistansini bo‘zdir, o‘z o‘z riskini bo‘zdir. RTOS və dilladlar If everything is so complicated, is it really possible to send a computer/server running Windows or Linux into space? In theory, yes, but usually, such tasks require an RTOS — an operating system that guarantees the execution of critical functions without the slightest failure or delay. Among the most well-known and trusted RTOSs are the American VxWorks and RTEMS. VxWorks, Wind River o‘ladi, o‘lani RTOS o‘lani, o‘lani o‘lani, o‘lani o‘lani, o‘lani o‘lani, o‘lani o‘lani, o‘lani o‘lani, o‘lani o‘lani. RTEMS (Real-Time Executive for Multiprocessor Systems) o‘z orijinalini US Army missile sistemini qilmadi, o‘z daha o‘z multiprocessor arkitekturalarni qilmadi. RTEMS has a more flexible task scheduling system and allows for component modifications. The OS has undergone rigorous testing and has been awarded a reliability level of “B” according to the ESA classification, which indicates its suitability for critical space systems. There is also Ada95, a programming language created in the US in 1980 for critical software in real-time systems. Like the RTEMS operating system, it was originally a military development that was adapted for scientific tasks. Ada95 is used in aviation and space due to its strict typing, support for parallelism, runtime array boundary checks, and exception handling. Specialized software called “C” provides low-level control of response time and memory, so in safety projects, it is restricted by profiles such as MISRA C and supplemented by rigorous static analysis. For certified real-time, there is the Ravenscar profile, which cuts tasks down to an analyzable subset. SPARK, a subset of Ada compatible with DO-178C/DO-333 requirements, is used for formal verification. In practice, these tools significantly reduce the amount of verification and operational risks in large projects, from fly-by-wire systems such as the Boeing 777 to ESA avionics. CubeSat and COTS Revolution Bu o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z o‘z. Thanks to their small size and modularity, CubeSats simplify and reduce the cost of creating and launching space equipment into orbit. This opens up new opportunities for businesses and researchers. For example, to launch commercial and scientific missions at a lower cost, including communications, remote sensing, IoT, and experiments in low Earth orbit. CubeSats have become one of the drivers of the mass democratization of access to space and the development of the modern space industry. This is happening, among other things, thanks to the launch of serial devices using commercially available equipment (COTS). This approach allows for the rapid creation of modular and inexpensive satellites for scientific, commercial, and industrial tasks.
