In 2024 we introduced the world to more powerful Go execution traces. In that blog post we gave a sneak peek into some of the new functionality we could unlock with our new execution tracer, including flight recording. We’re happy to announce that flight recording is now available in Go 1.25, and it’s a powerful new tool in the Go diagnostics toolbox. more powerful Go execution traces flight recording Execution traces First, a quick recap on Go execution traces. The Go runtime can be made to write a log recording many of the events that happen during the execution of a Go application. That log is called a runtime execution trace. Go execution traces contain a plethora of information about how goroutines interact with each other and the underlying system. This makes them very handy for debugging latency issues, since they tell you both when your goroutines are executing, and crucially, when they are not. The runtime/trace package provides an API for collecting an execution trace over a given time window by calling runtime/trace.Start and runtime/trace.Stop. This works well if the code you’re tracing is just a test, microbenchmark, or command line tool. You can collect a trace of the complete end-to-end execution, or just the parts you care about. runtime/trace runtime/trace.Start runtime/trace.Stop However, in long-running web services, the kinds of applications Go is known for, that’s not good enough. Web servers might be up for days or even weeks, and collecting a trace of the entire execution would produce far too much data to sift through. Often just one part of the program’s execution goes wrong, like a request timing out or a failed health check. By the time it happens it’s already too late to call Start! Start One way to approach this problem is to randomly sample execution traces from across the fleet. While this approach is powerful, and can help find issues before they become outages, it requires a lot of infrastructure to get going. Large quantities of execution trace data would need to be stored, triaged, and processed, much of which won’t contain anything interesting at all. And when you’re trying to get to the bottom of a specific issue, it’s a non-starter. Flight recording This brings us to the flight recorder. A program often knows when something has gone wrong, but the root cause may have happened long ago. The flight recorder lets you collect a trace of the last few seconds of execution leading up to the moment a program detects there’s been a problem. The flight recorder collects the execution trace as normal, but instead of writing it out to a socket or a file, it buffers the last few seconds of the trace in memory. At any point, the program can request the contents of the buffer and snapshot exactly the problematic window of time. The flight recorder is like a scalpel cutting directly to the problem area. Example Let’s learn how to use the flight recorder with an example. Specifically, let’s use it to diagnose a performance problem with an HTTP server that implements a “guess the number” game. It exposes a /guess-number endpoint that accepts an integer and responds to the caller informing them if they guessed the right number. /guess-number There is also a goroutine that, once per minute, sends a report of all the guessed numbers to another service via an HTTP request. // bucket is a simple mutex-protected counter.
type bucket struct {
    mu      sync.Mutex
    guesses int
}

func main() {
    // Make one bucket for each valid number a client could guess.
    // The HTTP handler will look up the guessed number in buckets by
    // using the number as an index into the slice.
    buckets := make([]bucket, 100)

    // Every minute, we send a report of how many times each number was guessed.
    go func() {
        for range time.Tick(1 * time.Minute) {
            sendReport(buckets)
        }
    }()

    // Choose the number to be guessed.
    answer := rand.Intn(len(buckets))

    http.HandleFunc("/guess-number", func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
        start := time.Now()

        // Fetch the number from the URL query variable "guess" and convert it
        // to an integer. Then, validate it.
        guess, err := strconv.Atoi(r.URL.Query().Get("guess"))
        if err != nil || !(0 <= guess && guess < len(buckets)) {
            http.Error(w, "invalid 'guess' value", http.StatusBadRequest)
            return
        }

        // Select the appropriate bucket and safely increment its value.
        b := &buckets[guess]
        b.mu.Lock()
        b.guesses++
        b.mu.Unlock()

        // Respond to the client with the guess and whether it was correct.
        fmt.Fprintf(w, "guess: %d, correct: %t", guess, guess == answer)

        log.Printf("HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=%d duration=%s", guess, time.Since(start))
    })
    log.Fatal(http.ListenAndServe(":8090", nil))
}

// sendReport posts the current state of buckets to a remote service.
func sendReport(buckets []bucket) {
    counts := make([]int, len(buckets))

    for index := range buckets {
        b := &buckets[index]
        b.mu.Lock()
        defer b.mu.Unlock()

        counts[index] = b.guesses
    }

    // Marshal the report data into a JSON payload.
    b, err := json.Marshal(counts)
    if err != nil {
        log.Printf("failed to marshal report data: error=%s", err)
        return
    }
    url := "http://localhost:8091/guess-number-report"
    if _, err := http.Post(url, "application/json", bytes.NewReader(b)); err != nil {
        log.Printf("failed to send report: %s", err)
    }
} // bucket is a simple mutex-protected counter.
type bucket struct {
    mu      sync.Mutex
    guesses int
}

func main() {
    // Make one bucket for each valid number a client could guess.
    // The HTTP handler will look up the guessed number in buckets by
    // using the number as an index into the slice.
    buckets := make([]bucket, 100)

    // Every minute, we send a report of how many times each number was guessed.
    go func() {
        for range time.Tick(1 * time.Minute) {
            sendReport(buckets)
        }
    }()

    // Choose the number to be guessed.
    answer := rand.Intn(len(buckets))

    http.HandleFunc("/guess-number", func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
        start := time.Now()

        // Fetch the number from the URL query variable "guess" and convert it
        // to an integer. Then, validate it.
        guess, err := strconv.Atoi(r.URL.Query().Get("guess"))
        if err != nil || !(0 <= guess && guess < len(buckets)) {
            http.Error(w, "invalid 'guess' value", http.StatusBadRequest)
            return
        }

        // Select the appropriate bucket and safely increment its value.
        b := &buckets[guess]
        b.mu.Lock()
        b.guesses++
        b.mu.Unlock()

        // Respond to the client with the guess and whether it was correct.
        fmt.Fprintf(w, "guess: %d, correct: %t", guess, guess == answer)

        log.Printf("HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=%d duration=%s", guess, time.Since(start))
    })
    log.Fatal(http.ListenAndServe(":8090", nil))
}

// sendReport posts the current state of buckets to a remote service.
func sendReport(buckets []bucket) {
    counts := make([]int, len(buckets))

    for index := range buckets {
        b := &buckets[index]
        b.mu.Lock()
        defer b.mu.Unlock()

        counts[index] = b.guesses
    }

    // Marshal the report data into a JSON payload.
    b, err := json.Marshal(counts)
    if err != nil {
        log.Printf("failed to marshal report data: error=%s", err)
        return
    }
    url := "http://localhost:8091/guess-number-report"
    if _, err := http.Post(url, "application/json", bytes.NewReader(b)); err != nil {
        log.Printf("failed to send report: %s", err)
    }
} Here is the full code for the server: https://go.dev/play/p/rX1eyKtVglF, and for a simple client: https://go.dev/play/p/2PjQ-1ORPiw. To avoid a third process, the “client” also implements the report server, though in a real system this would be separate. https://go.dev/play/p/rX1eyKtVglF https://go.dev/play/p/2PjQ-1ORPiw Let’s suppose that after deploying the application in production, we received complaints from users that some /guess-number calls were taking longer than expected. When we look at our logs, we see that sometimes response times exceed 100 milliseconds, while the majority of calls are on the order of microseconds. /guess-number 2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=69 duration=625ns
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=62 duration=458ns
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=42 duration=1.417µs
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=86 duration=115.186167ms
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=0 duration=127.993375ms 2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=69 duration=625ns
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=62 duration=458ns
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=42 duration=1.417µs
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=86 duration=115.186167ms
2025/09/19 16:52:02 HTTP request: endpoint=/guess-number guess=0 duration=127.993375ms Before we continue, take a minute and see if you can spot what’s wrong! Regardless of whether you found the problem or not, let’s dive deeper and see how we can find the problem from first principles. In particular, it would be great if we could see what the application was doing in the time leading up to the slow response. This is exactly what the flight recorder was built for! We’ll use it to capture an execution trace once we see the first response exceeding 100 milliseconds. First, in main, we’ll configure and start the flight recorder: main // Set up the flight recorder
fr := trace.NewFlightRecorder(trace.FlightRecorderConfig{
    MinAge:   200 * time.Millisecond,
    MaxBytes: 1 << 20, // 1 MiB
})
fr.Start() // Set up the flight recorder
fr := trace.NewFlightRecorder(trace.FlightRecorderConfig{
    MinAge:   200 * time.Millisecond,
    MaxBytes: 1 << 20, // 1 MiB
})
fr.Start() MinAge configures the duration for which trace data is reliably retained, and we suggest setting it to around 2x the time window of the event. For example, if you are debugging a 5-second timeout, set it to 10 seconds. MaxBytes configures the size of the buffered trace so you don’t blow up your memory usage. On average, you can expect a few MB of trace data to be produced per second of execution, or 10 MB/s for a busy service. MinAge MaxBytes Next, we’ll add a helper function to capture the snapshot and write it to a file: var once sync.Once

// captureSnapshot captures a flight recorder snapshot.
func captureSnapshot(fr *trace.FlightRecorder) {
    // once.Do ensures that the provided function is executed only once.
    once.Do(func() {
        f, err := os.Create("snapshot.trace")
        if err != nil {
            log.Printf("opening snapshot file %s failed: %s", f.Name(), err)
            return
        }
        defer f.Close() // ignore error

        // WriteTo writes the flight recorder data to the provided io.Writer.
        _, err = fr.WriteTo(f)
        if err != nil {
            log.Printf("writing snapshot to file %s failed: %s", f.Name(), err)
            return
        }

        // Stop the flight recorder after the snapshot has been taken.
        fr.Stop()
        log.Printf("captured a flight recorder snapshot to %s", f.Name())
    })
} var once sync.Once

// captureSnapshot captures a flight recorder snapshot.
func captureSnapshot(fr *trace.FlightRecorder) {
    // once.Do ensures that the provided function is executed only once.
    once.Do(func() {
        f, err := os.Create("snapshot.trace")
        if err != nil {
            log.Printf("opening snapshot file %s failed: %s", f.Name(), err)
            return
        }
        defer f.Close() // ignore error

        // WriteTo writes the flight recorder data to the provided io.Writer.
        _, err = fr.WriteTo(f)
        if err != nil {
            log.Printf("writing snapshot to file %s failed: %s", f.Name(), err)
            return
        }

        // Stop the flight recorder after the snapshot has been taken.
        fr.Stop()
        log.Printf("captured a flight recorder snapshot to %s", f.Name())
    })
} And finally, just before logging a completed request, we’ll trigger the snapshot if the request took more than 100 milliseconds: // Capture a snapshot if the response takes more than 100ms.
// Only the first call has any effect.
if fr.Enabled() && time.Since(start) > 100*time.Millisecond {
    go captureSnapshot(fr)
} // Capture a snapshot if the response takes more than 100ms.
// Only the first call has any effect.
if fr.Enabled() && time.Since(start) > 100*time.Millisecond {
    go captureSnapshot(fr)
} Here’s the full code for the server, now instrumented with the flight recorder: https://go.dev/play/p/3V33gfIpmjG https://go.dev/play/p/3V33gfIpmjG Now, we run the server again and send requests until we get a slow request that triggers a snapshot. Once we’ve gotten a trace, we’ll need a tool that will help us examine it. The Go toolchain provides a built-in execution trace analysis tool via the go tool trace command. Run go tool trace snapshot.trace to launch the tool, which starts a local web server, then open the displayed URL in your browser (if the tool doesn’t open your browser automatically). go tool trace go tool trace snapshot.trace This tool gives us a few ways to look at the trace, but let’s focus on visualizing the trace to get a sense of what’s going on. Click “View trace by proc” to do so. In this view, the trace is presented as a timeline of events. At the top of the page, in the “STATS” section, we can see a summary of the application’s state, including the number of threads, the heap size, and the goroutine count. Below that, in the “PROCS” section, we can see how the execution of goroutines is mapped onto GOMAXPROCS (the number of operating system threads created by the Go application). We can see when and how each goroutine starts, runs, and finally stops executing. GOMAXPROCS For now, let’s turn our attention to this massive gap in execution on the right side of the viewer. For a period of time, around 100ms, nothing is happening! By selecting the zoom tool (or pressing 3), we can inspect the section of the trace right after the gap with more detail. zoom 3 In addition to the activity of each individual goroutine, we can see how goroutines interact via “flow events.” An incoming flow event indicates what happened to make a goroutine start running. An outgoing flow edge indicates what effect one goroutine had on another. Enabling the visualization of all flow events often provides clues that hint at the source of a problem. In this case, we can see that many of the goroutines have a direct connection to a single goroutine right after the pause in activity. Clicking on the single goroutine shows an event table filled with outgoing flow events, which matches what we saw when the flow view was enabled. What happened when this goroutine ran? Part of the information stored in the trace is a view of the stack trace at different points in time. When we look at the goroutine we can see that the start stack trace shows that it was waiting for the HTTP request to complete when the goroutine was scheduled to run. And the end stack trace shows that the sendReport function had already returned and it was waiting for the ticker for the next scheduled time to send the report. sendReport Between the start and the end of this goroutine running, we see a huge number of “outgoing flows,” where it interacts with other goroutines. Clicking on one of the Outgoing flow entries takes us to a view of the interaction. Outgoing flow This flow implicates the Unlock in sendReport: Unlock sendReport for index := range buckets {
    b := &buckets[index]
    b.mu.Lock()
    defer b.mu.Unlock()

    counts[index] = b.guesses
} for index := range buckets {
    b := &buckets[index]
    b.mu.Lock()
    defer b.mu.Unlock()

    counts[index] = b.guesses
} In sendReport, we intended to acquire a lock on each bucket and release the lock after copying the value. sendReport But here’s the problem: we don’t actually release the lock immediately after copying the value contained in bucket.guesses. Because we used a defer statement to release the lock, that release doesn’t happen until the function returns. We hold the lock not just past the end of the loop, but until after the HTTP request completes. That’s a subtle error that may be difficult to track down in a large production system. bucket.guesses defer Fortunately, execution tracing helped us pinpoint the problem. However, if we tried to use the execution tracer in a long-running server without the new flight-recording mode, it would likely amass a huge amount of execution trace data, which an operator would have to store, transmit, and sift through. The flight recorder gives us the power of hindsight. It lets us capture just what went wrong, after it’s already happened, and quickly zero in on the cause. The flight recorder is just the latest addition to the Go developer’s toolbox for diagnosing the inner workings of running applications. We’ve steadily been improving tracing over the past couple of releases. Go 1.21 greatly reduced the run-time overhead of tracing. The trace format became more robust and also splittable in the Go 1.22 release, leading to features like the flight recorder. Open-source tools like gotraceui, and the forthcoming ability to programmatically parse execution traces are more ways to leverage the power of execution traces. The Diagnostics page lists many additional tools at your disposal. We hope you make use of them as you write and refine your Go applications. gotraceui forthcoming ability to programmatically parse execution traces Diagnostics page Thanks We’d like to take a moment to thank those community members who have been active in the diagnostics meetings, contributed to the designs, and provided feedback over the years: Felix Geisendörfer (@felixge.de), Nick Ripley (@nsrip-dd), Rhys Hiltner (@rhysh), Dominik Honnef (@dominikh), Bryan Boreham (@bboreham), and PJ Malloy (@thepudds). @felixge.de @nsrip-dd @rhysh @dominikh @bboreham @thepudds The discussions, feedback, and work you’ve all put in have been instrumental in pushing us to a better diagnostics future. Thank you! Carlos Amedee and Michael Knyszek Carlos Amedee and Michael Knyszek This article is available on The Go Blog under a CC BY 4.0 DEED license. This article is available on The Go Blog under a CC BY 4.0 DEED license. The Go Blog The Go Blog Photo by Lukas Souza on Unsplash Photo by Lukas Souza on Unsplash Lukas Souza Unsplash

Flight Recorder: A New Go Execution Tracer

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