Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions

How to Write Clearly: Rules and Exercises on English Composition by Edwin Abbott Abbott, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. here ORDER OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE. *15. Emphatic words must stand in emphatic positions; i.e. for the most part, at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.* This rule occasionally supersedes the common rules about position. Thus, the place for an adverb, as a rule, should be between the subject and verb: "He left the room;" but if is to be emphatic, it must come at the beginning or end, as in "I told him to leave the room slowly, but he left ." quickly quickly quickly Adjectives, in clauses beginning with "if" and "though," often come at the beginning for emphasis: " though he was, he was silenced at last." Insolent *15 a. Unemphatic words must, as a rule, be kept from the end of the sentence.* It is a common fault to break this rule by placing a short and unemphatic predicate at the end of a long sentence. "To know some Latin, even if it be nothing but a few Latin roots, ." Write, "It is useful, &c." is useful So "the evidence proves how kind to his inferiors ." he is Often, where an adjective or auxiliary verb comes at the end, the addition of an emphatic adverb justifies the position, above, "is useful," "he has been." e.g. very invariably A short "chippy" ending, even though emphatic, is to be avoided. It is abrupt and unrhythmical, "The soldier, transfixed with the spear, ." We want a ending, "fell writhing to the ground," or, "writhed in the agonies of death." A "chippy" ending is common in bad construing from Virgil. e.g. writhed longer *Exceptions.*—Prepositions and pronouns attached to emphatic words need not be moved from the end; "He does no harm that I hear ." "Bear witness how I loved ." e.g. of him *N.B. In all styles, especially in letter-writing, a final emphasis must not be so frequent as to become obtrusive and monotonous.* *15 b. An interrogation sometimes gives emphasis.* "No one can doubt that the prisoner, had he been really guilty, would have shown some signs of remorse," is not so emphatic as "Who can doubt, Is it possible to doubt, &c.?" Contrast "No one ever names Wentworth without thinking of &c." with "But Wentworth,—who ever names him without thinking of those harsh dark features, ennobled by their expression into more than the majesty of an antique Jupiter?" *16. The subject, if unusually emphatic, should often be removed from the beginning of the sentence.* The beginning of the sentence is an emphatic position, though mostly not so emphatic as the end. Therefore the principal subject of a sentence, being emphatic, and being wanted early in the sentence to tell us what the sentence is about, comes as a rule, at or near the beginning: " built this house." Thomas Hence, since the beginning is the place for the subject, if we want to emphasize "Thomas" , we must remove "Thomas" from the beginning: "This house was built by ," or "It was that built this house." usual unusually Thomas Thomas Thus, the emphasis on "conqueror" is not quite so strong in " ought not to obtain from us the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind," as in "We ought not to bestow the reverence that is due to the great benefactors of mankind, ." Considerable, but less emphasis and greater smoothness (19) will be obtained by writing the sentence thus: "We ought not to bestow upon a mere conqueror &c." A mere conqueror upon a mere conqueror Where the same subject stands first in several consecutive sentences, it rises in emphasis, and need not be removed from the beginning, even though unusual emphasis be required: "The captain was the life and soul of the expedition. first pointed out the possibility of advancing; warned them of the approaching scarcity of provisions; showed how they might replenish their exhausted stock &c." He he he *17. The object is sometimes placed before the verb for emphasis.* This is most common in antithesis. " I know, and I know; but who are ye?" " he imprisoned, he put to death." Jesus Paul Some others Even where there is no antithesis the inversion is not uncommon: "Military , the boast of the sottish German, of the frivolous and prating Frenchman, of the romantic and arrogant Spaniard, he neither possesses nor values." courage This inversion sometimes creates ambiguity in poetry, "The son the father slew," and must be sparingly used in prose. e.g. Sometimes the position of a word may be considered appropriate by some, and inappropriate by others, according to different interpretations of the sentence. Take as an example, "Early in the morning the nobles and gentlemen who attended on the king assembled in the great hall of the castle; and here they began to talk of what a dreadful storm it had been the night before. But Macbeth could scarcely understand what they said, for he was thinking of something worse." The last sentence has been amended by Professor Bain into " , Macbeth could scarcely understand." But there appears to be an antithesis between the guiltless nobles who can think about the weather, and the guilty Macbeth who cannot. Hence, "what they said" ought not, and "Macbeth" ought, to be emphasized: and therefore "Macbeth" ought to be retained at the beginning of the sentence. What they said The same author alters, "The praise of judgment Virgil has justly contested with him, but his invention remains yet unrivalled," into "Virgil has justly contested with him the praise of judgment, but no one has yet rivalled his invention"—an alteration which does not seem to emphasize sufficiently the antithesis between what had been 'contested,' on the one hand, and what remained as yet 'unrivalled' on the other. More judiciously Professor Bain alters, "He that tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes; for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one," into "for, to maintain one, he must invent twenty more," putting the emphatic words in their emphatic place, at the end. *18. Where several words are emphatic, make it clear which is the most emphatic.* Thus, in "The state was made, under the pretence of serving it, in reality the prize of their contention to each of these opposite parties," it is unpleasantly doubtful whether the writer means (1) or (2) to be emphatic. state parties If (1), "As for the , these two parties, under the pretence of serving it, converted it into a prize for their contention." If (2), write, "Though served in profession, the state was in reality converted into a prize for their contention by these two ." In (1) is subordinated, in (2) . state parties parties state Sometimes the addition of some intensifying word serves to emphasize. Thus, instead of "To effect this they used all devices," we can write "To effect this they used ." So, if we want to emphasize fidelity in "The business will task your skill and fidelity," we can write "Not only your skill your fidelity." This, however, sometimes leads to exaggerations. See (2). every conceivable device but also Sometimes antithesis gives emphasis, as in "You not know this, but you know it." Where antithesis cannot be used, the emphasis must be expressed by turning the sentence, as "I know it," or by some addition, as "You shall know it." do shall will make you hereafter *19. Words should be as near as possible to the words with which they are grammatically connected.* See Paragraphs 20 to 29. For exceptions see 30. *20. Adverbs should be placed next to the words they are intended to affect.* When unemphatic, adverbs come between the subject and the verb, or, if the tense is compound, between the parts of the compound tense: "He left the room;" "He has left the room;" but, when emphatic, after the verb: "He left, or has left, the room ."[10] When such a sentence as the latter is followed by a present participle, there arises ambiguity. "I told him to go slowly, but he left the room , dropping the purse on the floor." Does here modify or ? The remedy[11] is, to give the adverb its unemphatic place, "He left the room, dropping &c.," or else to avoid the participle, thus: "He dropped the purse and left the room," or "He dropped the purse and left the room." quickly quickly quickly quickly quickly left dropping quickly quickly quickly *21. "Only" requires careful use. The strict[12] rule is, that "only" should be placed before the word affected by it.* The following is ambiguous: "The heavens are not open to the faithful at intervals." only The best rule is to avoid placing "only" between two emphatic words, and to avoid using "only" where "alone" can be used instead. In strictness perhaps the three following sentences: (1) He beat three, only (2) He beat three, only (3) He beat three , ought to be explained, severally, thus: only (1) He did no more than beat, did not kill, three. (2) He beat no more than three. (3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here modifies the whole of the sentence and depreciates the action.) only But the best authors sometimes transpose the word. "He lived" ought to mean "he did not die or make any great sacrifice;" but "He lived but till he was a man" ( , v. 8. 40) means "He lived till he was a man." Compare also, "Who hath immortality." only only Macbeth only only at the beginning of a statement = . "I don't like to importune you, I know you'll forgive me." Before an imperative it diminishes the favour asked: " listen to me." This use of is mostly confined to letters. Only but only Only only Very often, at the beginning of a sentence is used for : " ten came," " Cæsar approved." is less ambiguous. The ambiguity of is illustrated by such a sentence as, "Don't hesitate to bring a few friends of yours to shoot on my estate at any time. five (fifteen) came yesterday," which might mean, "I don't mind a ; don't bring so many as ;" or else "Don't hesitate to bring a few ; no more than came yesterday." In conversation, ambiguity is prevented by emphasis; but in a letter, thus used might cause unfortunate mistakes. Write "Yesterday five came," if you mean "no more than five." only alone Only Only Alone only Only few only fifteen more five only only *22. When "not only" precedes "but also," see that each is followed by the same part of speech.* "He gave me advice help" is wrong. Write "He gave me, advice, help." On the other hand, "He gave me a grammar, lent me a dictionary," is right. Take an instance. "He spoke forcibly tastefully (adverbs), and this too, before a small audience, in (prepositions) a large public meeting, and his speeches were successful, (adjective) worthy of success." not only but also not only but also not only but also not only but also not only but also not only but also *23. "At least," "always," and other adverbial adjuncts, sometimes produce ambiguity.* "I think you will find my Latin exercise, , as good as my cousin's." Does this mean (1) "my Latin exercise, though not perhaps my other exercises;" or (2), "Though not very good, yet, at all events, as good as my cousin's"? Write for (1), "My Latin exercise, at all events, you will find &c." and for (2), "I think you will find my Latin exercise as good as my cousin's, at all events." at all events The remedy is to avoid placing "at all events" between two emphatic words. As an example of the misplacing of an adverbial adjunct, take "From abroad he received most favourable reports, but in the City he heard that a panic had broken out on the Exchange, and that the funds were fast falling." This ought to mean that the "hearing," and not (as is intended) that the "breaking out of the panic," took place in the City. In practice, an adverb is often used to qualify a remote word, where the latter is . This is very common when the Adverbial Adjunct is placed in an emphatic position at the beginning of the sentence: " our guide declared that Claverhouse had fallen." more emphatic than any nearer word On this very spot *24. Nouns should be placed near the nouns that they define.* In the very common sentence "The death is announced of Mr. John Smith, an author whose works &c.," the transposition is probably made from a feeling that, if we write "The death of Mr. John Smith is announced," we shall be obliged to begin a new sentence, "He was an author whose works &c." But the difficulty can be removed by writing "We regret to announce, or, we are informed of, the death of Mr. John Smith, an author, &c." *25. Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun.* Avoid, "John Smith, the son of Thomas Smith, gave me this book," unless is the antecedent of . Avoid also "John supplied Thomas with money: (John) was very well off." who Thomas Smith who he When, however, one of two preceding nouns is decidedly superior to the other in emphasis, the more emphatic may be presumed to be the noun referred to by the pronoun, even though the noun of inferior emphasis intervenes. Thus: "At this moment the colonel came up, and took the place of the wounded general. gave orders to halt." Here would naturally refer to , though intervenes. A will often show that a pronoun refers to the subject of the preceding sentence, and not to another intervening noun. "The sentinel at once took aim at the approaching soldier, and fired. He retreated to give the alarm." He he colonel general conjunction then It is better to adhere, in most cases, to Rule 25, which may be called (Bain) the Rule of Proximity. The Rule of Emphasis, of which an instance was given in the last paragraph, is sometimes misleading. A distinction might be drawn by punctuating thus: "David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath." "David, the father of Solomon who built the Temple." But the propriety of omitting a comma in each case is questionable, and it is better to write so as not to be at the mercy of commas. *26. Clauses that are grammatically connected should be kept as close together as possible.* (But see 55.) The introduction of parentheses violating this rule often produced serious ambiguity. Thus, in the following: "The result of these observations appears to be in opposition to the view now generally received in this country, that in muscular effort the substance of the muscle itself undergoes disintegration." Here it is difficult to tell whether the theory of "disintegration" is (1) "the result," or, as the absence of a comma after "be" would indicate, (2) "in opposition to the result of these observations." If (1) is intended, add "and to prove" after "country;" if (2), insert "which is" after "country." There is an excessive complication in the following:—"It cannot, at all events, if the consideration demanded by a subject of such importance from any one professing to be a philosopher, be given, be denied that &c." Where a speaker feels that his hearers have forgotten the connection of the beginning of the sentence, he should repeat what he has said; after the long parenthesis in the last sentence he should recommence, "it cannot, I say, be denied." In writing, however, this licence must be sparingly used. e.g. A short parenthesis, or modifying clause, will not interfere with clearness, especially if antithesis he used, so as to show the connection between the different parts of the sentence, "A modern newspaper statement, , would be laughed at if quoted in a book as testimony; but the letter of a court gossip is thought good historical evidence if written some centuries ago." Here, to place "though probably true" at the beginning of the sentence would not add clearness, and would impair the emphasis of the contrast between "a modern newspaper statement" and "the letter of a court gossip." e.g. though probably true *27. In conditional sentences, the antecedent clauses must be kept distinct from the consequent clauses.*—There is ambiguity in "The lesson intended to be taught by these manoeuvres will be lost, if the plan of operations is laid down too definitely beforehand, and the affair degenerates into a mere review." Begin, in any case, with the antecedent, "If the plan," &c. Next write, according to the meaning: (1) "If the plan is laid down, and the affair degenerates &c., then the lesson will be lost;" or (2) " … then the lesson … will be lost, and the affair degenerates into a mere review." *28. Dependent clauses preceded by "that" should be kept distinct from those that are independent.* Take as an example: (1) "He replied that he wished to help them, and intended to make preparations accordingly." This ought not to be used (though it sometimes is, for shortness) to mean: (2) "He replied …, and he intended." In (1), "intended," having no subject, must be supposed to be connected with the nearest preceding verb, in the same mood and tense, that has a subject, "wished." It follows that (1) is a condensation of: i.e. (3) "He replied that he wished …, and that he intended." (2), though theoretically free from ambiguity, is practically ambiguous, owing to a loose habit of repeating the subject unnecessarily. It would be better to insert a conjunctional word or a full stop between the two statements. Thus: (4) "He replied that he wished to help them, and he intended," &c., or "He replied, &c. He intended, &c." indeed Where there is any danger of ambiguity, use (3) or (4) in preference to (1) or (2). *29. When there are several infinitives, those that are dependent on the same word must be kept distinct from those that are not.* "He said that he wished take his friend with him visit the capital and study medicine." Here it is doubtful whether the meaning is— to to to "He said that he wished to take his friend with him, (1) to visit the capital and study medicine," or and also (2) "that his friend might visit the capital study medicine," or and might also (3) "on a visit to the capital, wished to study medicine." and that he also From the three different versions it will be perceived that this ambiguity must be met ( ) by using "that" for "to," which allows us to repeat an auxiliary verb [ "might" in (2)], and ( ) by inserting conjunctions. As to insertions of conjunctions, see (37). a e.g. b "In order to," and "for the purpose of," can be used to distinguish (wherever there is any ambiguity) between an infinitive that , and an infinitive that does not, "He told his servant to call upon his friend, (in order to) give him information about the trains, and not to leave him till he started." expresses a purpose e.g. to *30. The principle of suspense.* Write your sentence in such a way that, until he has come to the full stop, the reader may feel the sentence to be incomplete. In other words, keep your reader in . is caused (1) by placing the "if-clause" first, and not last, in a conditional sentence; (2) by placing participles before the words they qualify; (3) by using suspensive conjunctions, , , , , , &c. suspense Suspense e.g. not only either partly on the one hand in the first place The following is an example of an sentence. The sense , and it is difficult to keep up one's attention. unsuspended draggles "Mr. Pym was looked upon as the man of greatest experience in parliaments, | where he had served very long, | and was always a man of business, | being an officer in the Exchequer, | and of a good reputation generally, | though known to be inclined to the Puritan party; yet not of those furious resolutions ( so furiously resolved) against the Church as the other leading men were, | and wholly devoted to the Earl of Bedford,—who had nothing of that spirit." Mod. Eng. The foregoing sentence might have ended at any one of the eight points marked above. When suspended it becomes:— "Mr. Pym, owing to his long service in Parliament in the Exchequer, was esteemed above all others for his Parliamentary experience and for his knowledge of business. He had also a good reputation generally; for, though openly favouring the Puritan party, he was closely devoted to the Earl of Bedford, and, like the Earl, had none of the fanatical spirit manifested against the Church by the other leading men." *30 a. It is a violation of the principle of Suspense to introduce unexpectedly, at the end of a long sentence, some short and unemphatic clause beginning with (a) " … not" or (b) " … which."* ( ) "This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, ." a and not, as some say, wastefulness Write "not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence, and frugality." ( ) "After a long and tedious journey, the last part of which was a little dangerous owing to the state of the roads, we arrived safely at York, ." b which is a fine old town *Exception.*—When the short final clause is intended to be unexpectedly unemphatic, it comes in appropriately, with something of the sting of an epigram. See (42). Thus: "The old miser said that he should have been delighted to give the poor fellow a shilling, but most unfortunately he had left his purse at home— ." a habit of his Suspense naturally throws increased emphasis on the words for which we are waiting, on the end of the sentence. It has been pointed out above that *a monotony of final emphasis is objectionable, especially in letter writing and conversation*. i.e. *31. Suspense must not be excessive.* is a common fault in boys translating from Latin. "Themistocles, having secured the safety of Greece, the Persian fleet being now destroyed, when he had unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont, hearing that Xerxes was in full flight, and thinking that it might be profitable to secure the friendship of the king, wrote as follows to him." The more English idiom is: "When Themistocles had secured the safety of Greece by the destruction of the Persian fleet, he made an unsuccessful attempt to persuade the Greeks to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. Soon afterwards, hearing &c." Excess of suspense A long suspense that would be intolerable in prose is tolerable in the introduction to a poem. See the long interval at the beginning of between "Of man's first disobedience" and "Sing, heavenly Muse." Compare also the beginning of , Book II.: Paradise Lost Paradise Lost " " High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold— Satan exalted sat. with the opening of Keats' : Hyperion " " Deep in the shady sadness of a vale, Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn, Far from the fiery noon and eve's one star— Sat grey-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone. *32. In a long conditional sentence put the "if-clause," antecedent, or protasis, first.* Everyone will see the flatness of "Revenge thy father's most unnatural murder, if thou didst ever love him," as compared with the suspense that forces an expression of agony from Hamlet in— " If thou didst ever thy dear father love— O, God! Revenge his foul and most unnatural murder." Ghost. Hamlet. Ghost. The effect is sometimes almost ludicrous when the consequent is long and complicated, and when it precedes the antecedent or "if-clause." "I should be delighted to introduce you to my friends, and to show you the objects of interest in our city, and the beautiful scenery in the neighbourhood, if you were here." Where the "if-clause" comes last, it ought to be very emphatic: "if you were here." only The introduction of a clause with "if" or "though" in the middle of a sentence may often cause ambiguity, especially when a great part of the sentence depends on "that:" "His enemies answered that, for the sake of preserving the public peace, they would keep quiet for the present, though he declared that cowardice was the motive of the delay, and that for this reason they would put off the trial to a more convenient season." See (27). *33. Suspense[13] is gained by placing a Participle or Adjective that qualifies the Subject, before the Subject.* " by his friends, he was forced to have recourse to those that had been his enemies." Here, if we write, "He, deserted by his friends, was forced &c.," is unduly emphasized; and if we write, "He was forced to have recourse to his enemies, having been deserted by his friends," the effect is very flat. Deserted he Of course we might sometimes write "He was deserted and forced &c." But this cannot be done where the "desertion" is to be not stated but implied. Often, when a participle qualifying the subject is introduced late in the sentence, it causes positive ambiguity: "With this small force the general determined to attack the foe, with recent victory and negligent by success." flushed rendered An excessive use of the is French and objectionable: " by nature, and too much with business to think of the morrow, by a long-established liberty and a fabulous prosperity, for many generations forgotten the scourge of war, we allow ourselves to drift on without taking heed of the signs of the times." The remedy is to convert the participle into a verb depending on a conjunction: "Because we are by nature careless, &c.;" or to convert the participle into a verb co-ordinate with the principal verb, " by nature careless, &c., and therefore we ourselves, &c." suspensive participle e.g. Careless engaged spoiled having e.g. We are allow *34. Suspensive Conjunctions, e.g. "either," "not only," "on the one hand," add clearness.*—Take the following sentence:—"You must take this extremely perilous course, in which success is uncertain, and failure disgraceful, as well as ruinous, or else the liberty of your country is endangered." Here, the meaning is liable to be misunderstood, till the reader has gone half through the sentence. Write " you must," &c., and the reader is, from the first, prepared for an alternative. Other suspensive conjunctions or phrases are , ; ; ; ; ; ; . Either partly for our part in the first place it is true doubtless of course though on the one hand *35. Repeat the Subject when the omission would cause ambiguity or obscurity.*—The omission is particularly likely to cause obscurity after a Relative standing as Subject:— "He professes to be helping the nation, which in reality is suffering from his flattery, and (he? or it?) will not permit anyone else to give it advice." The Relative should be repeated when it is the Subject of several Verbs. "All the pleasing illusions made power gentle and obedience liberal, harmonized the different shades of life, and , by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason." which which which *36. Repeat a Preposition after an intervening Conjunction, especially if a Verb and an Object also intervene.* "He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that helped all his companions when he was poor and uninfluential, and ( ) John Smith in particular." Here, omit , and the meaning may be "that helped all his companions, and John Smith in particular." The intervention of the verb and object, "helped" and "companions," causes this ambiguity. to to *37. When there are several Verbs at some distance from a Conjunction on which they depend, repeat the Conjunction.*[14] "When we look back upon the havoc that two hundred years have made in the ranks of our national authors—and, above all, ( ) we refer their rapid disappearance to the quick succession of new competitors—we cannot help being dismayed at the prospect that lies before the writers of the present day." when Here omit "when," and we at once substitute a parenthetical statement for what is really a subordinate clause. In reporting a speech or opinion, "that" must be continually repeated, to avoid the danger of confusing what the writer says with what others say. "We might say that the Cæsars did not persecute the Christians; ( ) they only punished men who were charged, rightly or wrongly, with burning Rome, and committing the foulest abominations in secret assemblies; and ( ) the refusal to throw frankincense on the altar of Jupiter was not the crime, but only evidence of the crime." But see (6 ). that that b *37 a. Repeat Verbs after the conjunctions "than," "as," &c.* "I think he likes me better you;" either "than you like me," or "he likes you." than i.e. "Cardinal Richelieu hated Buckingham as sincerely as the Spaniard Olivares." Omit "did," and you cause ambiguity. did *38. If the sentence is so long that it is difficult to keep the thread of meaning unbroken, repeat the subject, or some other emphatic word, or a summary of what has been said.* "Gold and cotton, banks and railways, crowded ports, and populous cities— are not the elements that constitute a great nation." these This repetition (though useful and, when used in moderation, not unpleasant) is more common with speakers than with writers, and with slovenly speakers than with good speakers. "The country is in such a condition, that if we delay longer some fair measure of reform, sufficient at least to satisfy the more moderate, and much more, if we refuse all reform whatsoever—I say, if that we may precipitate a revolution." we adopt so unwise a policy, the country is in such a condition Where the relative is either implied (in a participle) or repeated, the antecedent must often be repeated also. In the following sentence we have the Subject repeated not only in the final summary, but also as the antecedent:— "But if there were, in any part of the world, a national church regarded as heretical by four-fifths of the nation committed to its care; a established and maintained by the sword; a producing twice as many riots as conversions; a which, though possessing great wealth and power, and though long backed by persecuting laws, had, in the course of many generations, been found unable to propagate its doctrines, and barely able to maintain its ground; a so odious that fraud and violence, when used against its clear rights of property, were generally regarded as fair play; a whose ministers were preaching to desolate walls, and with difficulty obtaining their lawful subsistence by the help of bayonets,— , on our principles, could not, we must own, be defended." church church church church church such a church *39. It is a help to clearness, when the first part of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the middle for the end, in a kind of ascent. This ascent is called "climax."* In the following there are two climaxes, each of which has three terms:— "To gossip(a) is a fault(b); to (a'), a (b'); to slander(a''), a (b'')." libel crime sin In the following, there are several climaxes, and note how they contribute to the clearness of a long sentence:— "Man, working, has (a) the Atlantic Cable, but I declare that it (b) me far more to think (c), that to (c'), he has (a') 'Othello' and 'Lear,' and I am more than astonished, I am (b'), at that inexplicable elasticity of his nature which enables him, instead of (d) from (e), or instead of merely (d') them, actually to (d''), and to draw from the (e') a pleasure which is not only (f), but is in the highest degree (f')." contrived astonishes that for his mere amusement entertain a mere idle hour created awe-struck turning away calamity and grief defying make them the material of his amusement wildest agonies of the human spirit not cruel pure and ennobling The neglect of climax produces an abruptness that interferes with the even flow of thought. Thus, if Pope, in his ironical address to mankind, had written— "Go, wondrous creature, mount where science guides; Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides; Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule"— the ascent would have been too rapid. The transition from earth to heaven, and from investigating to governing, is prepared by the intervening climax— "Instruct the planets in what orbs to run; Correct old Time, and regulate the Sun; Go, soar with Plato to th' empyreal sphere, To the first good, first perfect, and first fair." *40. When the thought is expected to ascend and yet descends, feebleness and sometimes confusion is the result. The descent is called "bathos."* "What pen can describe the tears, the lamentations, the agonies, the of the unfortunate prisoners?" animated remonstrances "She was a woman of many accomplishments and virtues, graceful in her movements, winning in her address, a kind friend, a faithful and loving wife, a most affectionate mother, and she ." played beautifully on the pianoforte INTENTIONAL BATHOS has a humorous incongruity and abruptness that is sometimes forcible. For example, after the climax ending with the line— "Go, teach Eternal Wisdom how to rule," Pope adds— "Then drop into thyself, and be a ." fool *40 a. A new construction should not be introduced without cause.*—A sudden and apparently unnecessary change of construction causes awkwardness and roughness at least, and sometimes breaks the flow of the sentence so seriously as to cause perplexity. Thus, write "virtuous and accomplished," or "of many virtues and accomplishments," not "of many virtues and accomplished;" "riding or walking" or "on foot or horseback," not "on foot or riding." In the same way, do not put adjectives and participles, active and passive forms of verbs, in too close juxtaposition. Avoid such sentences as the following:— "He had good reason that the delay was not (accidental) but , and (to suppose, or else, for believing, above) that the fort, though strong both and (nature), would be forced by the governor and the (indolence of the) general to capitulate within a week." to believe an accident premeditated for supposing by art naturally treachery of the indolent "They accused him of being (receiving bribes from) by the king and (neglecting) to take the city." bribed unwilling *41. Antithesis adds force, and often clearness.*—The meaning of in the following sentence is ascertained by the antithesis:— liberal "All the pleasing illusions which made (a) (b) and (a') (b') … are now to be destroyed." power gentle obedience liberal There is a kind of proportion. As is to , so (in the sense here used) is to . Now is the check on the excess of power; therefore here applies to that which checks the excess of obedience, checks servility. Hence here means "free." gentleness power liberality obedience gentleness liberal i.e. liberal The contrast also adds force. "They aimed at the (a), not at the (a'), of their country. They were men of great (b) and great (b') talents, and, if the (c), the (c') of their age." rule destruction civil military terror ornament Excessive antithesis is unnatural and wearisome:— "Who can persuade where (a) is above (a'), and (b) ruleth (b'), and it is had for (c) whatsoever is (c'), and (d) are better than (d'), and (e) is named common (e')?" treason reason might right lawful lustful commotioners commissioners common woe wealth *42. Epigram.*—It has been seen that the neglect of climax results in lameness. Sometimes the suddenness of the descent produces amusement: and when the descent is intentional and very sudden, the effect is striking as well as amusing. Thus:— (1) "You are not only not vicious, you are virtuous," is a . climax (2) "You are not vicious, you are vice," is not , nor is it : it is .[15] climax bathos epigram Epigram may be defined as a "short sentence expressing truth under an amusing appearance of incongruity." It is often antithetical. "The Russian grandees came to { and diamonds," . court dropping pearls { and vermin," . climax epigram "These two nations were divided { and the bitter remembrance by mutual fear { of recent losses," . { and mountains," . climax epigram There is a sort of implied antithesis in:— "He is full of information—(but flat also) like yesterday's ." Times "Verbosity is cured (not by a small, but) by a large vocabulary." The name of epigram may sometimes be given to a mere antithesis; "An educated man should know something of everything, and everything of something." e.g. *43. Let each sentence have one, and only one, principal subject of thought.* "This great and good man died on the 17th of September, 1683, leaving behind him the memory of many noble actions, and a numerous family, of whom three were sons; one of them, George, the eldest, heir to his father's virtues, as well as to his principal estates in Cumberland, where most of his father's property was situate, and shortly afterwards elected member for the county, which had for several generations returned this family to serve in Parliament." Here we have (1) the "great and good man," (2) "George," (3) "the county," disputing which is to be considered the principal subject. Two, if not three sentences should have been made, instead of one. Carefully avoid a long sentence like this, treating of many different subjects on one level. It is called . heterogeneous *44. The connection between different sentences must be kept up by Adverbs used as Conjunctions, or by means of some other connecting words at the beginning of each sentence.*—Leave out the conjunctions and other connecting words, and it will be seen that the following sentences lose much of their meaning:— "Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. His biographer ( ) insists on our confessing, that, if the young cornet had remained in the service, he would have been one of the ablest commanders that ever lived. ( ) this is not all. Pitt (, ,) was not merely a great poet and a great general , but a finished example of moral excellence…. ( ) there scarcely ever lived a person who had so little claim to this sort of praise as Pitt. He was ( ) a great man. ( ) his was not a complete and well-proportioned greatness. The public life of Hampden or of Somers resembles a regular drama which can be criticised as a whole, and every scene of which is to be viewed in connection with the main action. The public life of Pitt (, ,) is," &c. accordingly But it seems in esse in posse The truth is, that undoubtedly But on the other hand The following are some of the most common connecting adverbs, or connecting phrases: (1) expressing consequence, similarity, repetition, or resumption of a subject— , , , , , , , , , , , , , ; (2) expressing opposition— , , , , , , , ; (3) expressing suspension— ; ; ; ; . accordingly therefore then naturally so that thus in this way again once more to resume to continue to sum up in fact upon this nevertheless in spite of this yet still however but on the contrary on the other hand undoubtedly … but indeed … yet on the one hand … on the other partly … partly some … others Avoid a style like that of Bishop Burnet, which strings together a number of sentences with "and" or "so," or with no conjunction at all: "Blake with the fleet happened to be at Malaga, before he made war upon Spain; some of his seamen went ashore, met the Host carried about; not only paid no respect to it, but laughed at those who did." Write " Blake &c." and and and When *45. The connection between two long sentences sometimes requires a short intervening sentence, showing the transition of thought.* "Without force or opposition, it (chivalry) subdued the fierceness of pride and power; it obliged sovereigns to submit to the soft collar[16] of social esteem, compelled stern authority to submit to elegance, and gave a dominating vanquisher of laws to be subdued by manners. But now ( :) all the pleasing illusions which made power gentle and obedience liberal, which harmonized the different shades of life, and which, by a bland assimilation, incorporated into politics the sentiments that beautify and soften private society, are to be dissolved by this new conquering empire of light and reason." If the words italicized were omitted, the transition would be too abrupt: the conjunction alone would be insufficient. all is to be changed but FOOTNOTES: [5] , at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes causes temporary doubt, while the reader is finding out whether it is used as a conjunction or preposition. For [6] should refer (1) either to the Noun immediately preceding, or (2) to some Noun superior to all intervening Nouns in emphasis. See (25). It [7] So useful that, on mature consideration, I am disposed to adopt "that" here and in several of the following exceptional cases. [8] Of course "and which" may be used where "which" precedes. [9] "That which," where is an , "then (set forth) is worse," ii. 10, is rare in modern English. that object e.g. that which St. John [10] Sometimes the emphatic Adverb comes at the beginning, and causes the transposition of an Auxiliary Verb, " do I consent." Gladly [11] Of course punctuation will remove the ambiguity; but it is better to express oneself clearly, as far as possible, independently of punctuation. [12] Professor Bain. [13] See (30). [14] The repetition of Auxiliary Verbs and Pronominal Adjectives is also conducive to clearness. [15] Professor Bain says: "In the epigram the mind is roused by a conflict or contradiction between the form of the language and the meaning really conveyed." [16] This metaphor is not recommended for imitation. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Edwin Abbott Abbott (2007). How to Write Clearly: Rules and Exercises on English Composition. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/22600/pg22600.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html