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Happy Halloween, hackers 🎃! We are super excited to announce a special treat this month - the Zero Knowledge Proofs Writing Contest by RareSkills and HackerNoon. Excellent topic for the contest, right? Zero Knowledge Proof has some amazing use cases and applications in security, privacy, and web3. This is your chance to flaunt your projects, case studies, and expert knowledge to win ! Can’t wait to read the contributions of our community. $1,000 How to Enter the Zero Knowledge Proofs Contest All you need to do is: about anything relevant to Zero Knowledge Proofs. Write a story Add the and tags to your story and submit. #zero-knowledge-proofs #zkp Need some ideas to write on? Here are a few tips and tricks For devs who are interested in learning Zero Knowledge Proofs, we highly recommend this as a practical guide for programmers! You can share your learning on HackerNoon as a story for the contest. free resource on #zkp by RareSkills For more ideas and topics, check out our writing prompt for the zero proofs writing contest right now! About Sponsor is a grad school for web3 engineers seeking hands-on knowledge in web3 development. Check out the free resources by RareSkills on the HackerNoon Learn tab and learn , , and . RareSkills how to build a Zero Knowledge Proof (ZK-SNARK) from scratch in Python and Solidity Solidity Gas Optimisation Solidity Smart Contract Security The Zero Knowledge Proofs Writing Contest by RareSkills: Rules & Guidelines You must be 18+ to enter. Story content can be any original story on and . #zero-knowledge-proofs #zkp You must , as winners will be contacted via email. create a HackerNoon account Your submission should fulfill our . editorial guidelines Can I write under a pen name? Yes! You can use your real name on your HN profile or even create a persona to write under. How long will the contest run? November 1st - November 30th, 2023 Round 1: December 2023 Winner Announcement: Can I submit more than one entry to the contest? Of course you can! Each story submission shall be considered a new entry into the writing contest. Is there a word limit for the submissions? Our minimum requirement is 500 words. There’s no upper limit. You can use as many words to share your story. Can you use AI to write a story? No. That would be cheating. Only original content written by humans will be considered qualified submissions. How are the winners selected? We’ll take the top 10 story submissions, factoring in originality, relevance, reads, and reading time. Those ten stories will be voted on by HackerNoon staff, and the top story with the most votes will win. We are waiting for your submissions! All the best, hackers! Visit to keep updated with the new and upcoming writing contests. contests.hackernoon.com

The Zero Knowledge Proofs Writing Contest by RareSkills 

রেয়ার স্কিলস দ্বারা জিরো নলেজ প্রুফ রাইটিং কনটেস্ট

Der Zero Knowledge Proofs-Schreibwettbewerb von RareSkills

El concurso de redacción de pruebas de conocimiento cero de RareSkills

Le concours de rédaction d'épreuves Zero Knowledge par RareSkills

रेयरस्किल्स द्वारा शून्य ज्ञान प्रमाण लेखन प्रतियोगिता

RareSkills によるゼロ知識証明ライティング コンテスト

RareSkills의 영지식 증명 쓰기 콘테스트

O Concurso de Redação de Provas de Conhecimento Zero da RareSkills

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Cuộc thi viết bằng chứng kiến thức Zero của RareSkills

RareSkills 零知识证明写作比赛

The Tech Behind Tornado Cash (Line by Line for Programmers)

A smart contract audit is a review by blockchain security experts to ensure that users will not lose funds due to a malfunction or security vulnerability. Furthermore, an audit tries to anticipate unexpected and undesirable smart contract behavior before the contract is deployed. Navigating this field is tricky. There are dozens of audit firms, and getting quotes from several of them takes time, and it is hard to know if you are getting a fair price or not. This article will help serve as a starting point for navigating the task of getting a smart contract audit. References to auditing firms in this article should not be construed as an endorsement. There is no official standard for a smart contract audit And there probably won’t be one for the foreseeable future with how fast the industry moves. The term “smart contract audit” is an evolution of industry lingo, it does not have a rigorous definition, and it can mean different things to different people. For those coming from industries where are the norm, smart contract auditing will seem like the wild west (and frankly, that would be an accurate assessment). ISO standards Although some are well known, others are emergent properties of complex systems and are hard to detect systematically. smart contract vulnerabilities Standards are characteristic of mature markets, and as a whole is not a mature market. web3 It is a bit of a conflation of terms to call smart contract audits “audits.” In the field of accounting, an “audit” has a very rigorous definition; this is not the case in blockchain engineering. What is called an “audit” in the blockchain is a security review by a team of experts. What makes this even more confusing is that there is no formal definition or certification for what makes someone an auditor or security expert in smart contracts. Yes, there are companies selling certifications, but these certifications hold no weight in the industry. As you can expect, there are several enterprising individuals capitalizing on the confusion to sell expertise they don’t have — as there is no established way to measure expertise. Caveat emptor. All that said, it is widely agreed in the industry that saying “this smart contract has been audited” means “a group of security experts was paid to review this codebase and find issues.” Since there is no formal definition for expertise, industry reputation is often used as a proxy. Three main types of auditors Smart Contract Audit Companies These are firms that specialize in security research. Some only audit smart contracts, while others audit smart contracts and traditional computer applications. You can think of this as an agency composed of security researchers. Until recently, this was the standard way to get a smart contract audit. If you do a Google search for smart contract auditing companies, these are the sort of results you will typically get. Independent security researchers Rather than join a company, some security researchers work for themselves. They are a little harder to find as they have much smaller marketing budgets compared to agencies, but because they have less overhead, they can often provide better prices. One drawback is that a firm is able to have several auditors review your code, whereas an independent auditor will only have one reviewer. But for smaller or less complicated codebases, this might be more cost-effective. Competitive audits Recently, a couple platforms ( , ) have popped up where companies requesting an audit publish their source code on the platform along with a monetary prize pool, and then independent contestants try to find bugs and vulnerabilities. Sherlock DeFi Code4rena The more bugs a contestant finds, the more money they will earn, but if another contestant finds the same bug, then the payout is diluted between the two. For well-understood bugs, the payout can be diluted considerably. Earnings for auditors in this format are quite sub-par. Contestants can rarely expect to make much more than $1,000 per contest despite putting in considerable effort. The primary incentive for participants is to prove their abilities so they can get a job at a traditional audit firm or attract business as a solo auditor (independent researcher). There are also no guarantees about the quality of the people participating in the contest, as anyone can participate. However, these platforms can be very educational for new auditors. Because the format encourages an intense focus on finding bugs, then gives feedback on what bugs were missed, they can provide a relatively tight feedback loop which helps speed up learning. In fact, we guide some of our solidity training to participate in these contests for educational purposes. The best auditors don’t spend a significant amount of time in contests, as they earn far more money working for themselves or for a firm. So keep in mind that someone doing well in an auditing contest may simply mean that they did not face significant competition for the contests they participated in. There is also an element of luck where a single contest makes up a significant portion of an auditor’s public earnings. However, this format get far more eyes on the code than other audit formats, and audit contests have caught bugs missed by other auditors. They also serve as a channel for companies to subtly market their protocols to the developer and auditor communities, so they are a valuable contribution to the ecosystem. Bonus: Informal code roasting Some developer discord groups will review your code for free (out of the desire to be helpful, so please don’t abuse others’ generosity). If you have a small and simple codebase, sometimes getting a few experts to donate their time may be the most cost-effective route for you. It would be extremely disingenuous for such a review to be called an “audit,” but if it is the only option available, it’s certainly better than no review at all. Things to watch out for in smart contract audits Look at past audits from the firm Some auditors use a rigid checklist for a list of smart contract vulnerabilities and check if the issue is present or not. This is good as a first pass, but many bugs are application-specific (as we note in that article). You want to make sure the auditor will consider the nuances and business requirements of your application. By looking at their past audits, you can see if they mechanically go against a list or dive deep into the specifics of your application. An auditor not supplying past audits is generally a red flag. Auditor specialization If your project uses exotic tokenomics or , then you will want to make sure that your selected auditor has experience with that. Similarly, if you are building a dapp on a non-evm compatible chain like , then you’ll want an auditor experienced with that blockchain. DeFi Zero Knowledge Proofs Solana Minimum cost Some audit firms will not bother with small codebases like an ERC20 token or a basic NFT because they won’t make enough money to pay for the sales call and account management. Rubber stamp auditors Because there is no formal or accepted definition for an audit, some firms have popped up that produce what is derisively known as “rubber stamp audits.” These firms provide audit reports simply because the buyer wanted an audit so they could tell their customers, “look, we’ve been audited!” Not every protocol intentionally gets rubber stamp audits; they may simply have chosen the auditor unaware that they are rubber stamp auditors. How reliable are smart contract audits? Even if a smart contract is audited, it can still get hacked afterward; this is not a rare occurrence. has a that tracks smart contract hacks by the amount of money lost. It’s easy to see most of the hacked protocols were not audited at all. Rekt.news leaderboard However, some of the protocols did have audits, some more than one, that the auditors still missed. In some cases, this can be because the auditors were incompetent or didn’t try hard enough, but in general, it is not possible to guarantee a codebase is free of bugs. The good news is some vulnerabilities don’t only get missed by auditors; they get missed by hackers too. Some smart contracts had gone on for months with a live vulnerability before they got patched. A decent audit will make sure the “low-hanging fruit” for hackers is eliminated. Should I get multiple audits? This is standard practice with well-funded DeFi protocols that intend to hold a lot of money; having three or more audit firms review the code is quite normal. What one auditor misses, another may catch, and vice versa. Similarly, one auditor may notice a vulnerability, and the developers may patch that vulnerability while introducing a different one. Typical Workflow of getting an audit You’ll reach out to various firms asking for quotes, and you’ll coordinate based on their availability and your launch dates. 1. Get quotes You should be in a code freeze when you go to audit. If the auditors are reviewing a different codebase from the one you will launch to prod, you are probably wasting money! 2. Audit begins Most audit reports (that don’t follow a fixed checklist) will return a list of findings categorized as Critical, High, Medium, Low, Informational, and Gas Optimization. These are explained in the following section. An audit can be as short as a few days to as long as a few months, depending on the scope of the project. 3. Audit report Depending on the agreement, the auditor will review the changes made by the developers and ensure the fix actually addresses the bug. The number of revision reviews considered acceptable depends on the auditor. 4. Review fixes Auditors generally publish their report if the customer permits (and customers usually want the audit to be public to show they’ve been audited). 5. Publish Report Audit Finding Severity Most audit reports group security findings into severity: Critical High Medium Low Informational Gas Optimization Not all firms use the same labels. As we noted, with the lack of universal standards, there isn’t a uniform definition for what is considered a “high” or “medium” vulnerability. Some auditors disagree about the appropriate rating to assign the same bug, but here are some factors auditors use to assign severity: Worst case outcome. All of the funds getting stolen is catastrophic. Bugs where a hacker cannot steal funds but users aren’t adequately protected from shooting themselves in the foot would be labeled with low severity. Number of users affected. The entire protocol losing money is more severe than an individual user losing money. Incentive to conduct the attack. If an attacker needs to spend more capital to conduct an attack than they would gain for carrying it out, then the severity is reduced. This is still a vulnerability because the attacker could have a non-economic motive to carry out an attack (showing off, personal vendetta, etc). Obscurity of the attack. If the vulnerability is something like missing an access control, then an unsophisticated attacker can carry out the attack. If the weakness depends on a deep understanding of a sophisticated tokenomics mechanism using advanced mathematics, then it is less likely the attacker will find the issue. Some auditors combine the last two factors into one: the likelihood of an attack. Under this model, they use the following table to assign severity: Critical vs High vs Medium Some auditors make a distinction between critical vulnerabilities and high vulnerabilities, and other auditors group critical vulnerabilities with high vulnerabilities. In either case, these are considered to be extremely serious bugs! For those that make a distinction, Critical may mean the entire protocol is severely affected, whereas a High means individual users may be severely affected. Medium severity issues usually mean issues which can be damaging but unlikely to occur. Informational Some auditors will point out issues, such as not adhering to the Solidity style guide or having variable and function names that are misspelled or misleading. These are not security vulnerabilities but could cause confusion down the road. Not all auditors point out informational issues. Gas Optimization Some auditors will suggest ways to improve the gas efficiency of certain codes. These are not security related, but they will certainly improve user experience. How much does it cost to audit a smart contract? Estimates based on public information If you look on Fiverr, you’ll find some services to audit smart contracts for low prices, but would you really want to depend on that kind of service for something this critical? Because contracts usually have non-disclosure agreements, rates can be hard to determine, but here is some public information. Competitive audit platforms advertise the reward pool, and of course, this money is coming from the customer paying for the audit. Here you can see prize pools as low as 5k and sometimes up to hundreds of thousands of dollars for very large projects. Of course, the people running the contest expect a fee for running the platform, so the actual cost will be higher. 1. Reward pools for competitive audits The auditing firm Spearbit published the at which they pay their auditors (who are contractors, not employees), so one can infer how much an audit will cost (not including the operations and profit margin) based on this. The pay per auditor is 3k-20k per week depending on seniority. Keep in mind this is not a full time job, but per-engagement. 2. Contractor salaries rates Another data point we have is independent auditors who have been public about earnings. One claims to earn on good months, taking on about four audits per month, another claimed with five audits. This is on the high end of what an independent auditor can expect to make, but it’s not outside the realm of possibility; staff engineers in top Silicon Valley companies . 3. Independent auditors $40k per month $50,000 in one month earn more than that How auditors generate quotes There is no standard pricing model, but here are some practices auditors use to determine the price they quote. Dollars per lines of code A common pricing model is $ / lines of code. This could cost between a few dollars to tens of dollars per line. Size and complexity Other auditors use a combination of size and complexity. A 1,000 line NFT is considerably simpler than a 1,000 line mathematics library. The auditing firm will make a subjective judgement based on the combination of these factors. Similarity to existing protocols Some auditors will give a discount if the project to be audited is forked, or very similar, to an established project as they can leverage past audits to determine if your project learned from past mistakes. Also, the total number of lines that have not been reviewed is a small percentage of the project. Different auditors will have a different threshold for what constitutes "similar" to established projects. Pay per vulnerability This model is common among independent auditors. The security researcher is paid a small downpayment and receives a payout for each bug found with a higher price for higher severity issues. This has the advantage of incentivizing the auditor to search harder, but it can also incentivize exaggerating the severity of bugs. Why are audits so expensive? Compared to other highly specialized knowledge workers, like lawyers (the best of whom can pull in over ), smart contract audits are not prohibitively expensive, but they can be a significant burden for small companies. one million dollars per month Becoming a smart contract auditor isn’t easy. Generally, the skill level required is comparable to trying to get a highly competitive job in Silicon Valley, which means starting salaries are going to easily be in six-figure territory. An auditing firm needs to charge a significant margin on top of those salaries to stay profitable, so it shouldn’t be surprising that audits cost tens of thousands of dollars, if not hundreds of thousands of dollars. Want help from RareSkills? RareSkills is not an auditing firm, but many of our are professional auditors, and we do engage in security research. We have an insider view of which firms are reputable and which are not. Feel free to and tell us about your needs, and we will refer you to the right resource based on your situation. instructors contact us If you are seeking to train your engineers in how to develop secure smart contracts, then our industry-leading for professional engineers may be of interest to you. smart contract bootcamp Also published . here

Getting a Smart Contract Audit: Everything You Need to Know

Obtener una auditoría de contrato inteligente: todo lo que necesita saber

Obtenir un audit de contrat intelligent : tout ce que vous devez savoir

स्मार्ट कॉन्ट्रैक्ट ऑडिट प्राप्त करना: वह सब कुछ जो आपको जानना आवश्यक है

スマートコントラクト監査の取得: 知っておくべきことすべて

Obtendo uma auditoria de contrato inteligente: tudo o que você precisa saber

Kiểm tra hợp đồng thông minh: Mọi thứ bạn cần biết

进行智能合约审核：您需要了解的一切

Smart Contract Security in Solidity

সলিডিটিতে স্মার্ট কন্ট্রাক্ট সিকিউরিটি

Intelligente Vertragssicherheit in Solidität

Una encuesta de 2023 sobre seguridad de contratos inteligentes para la solidez

Une enquête 2023 sur la sécurité des contrats intelligents pour la solidité

सॉलिडिटी के लिए स्मार्ट कॉन्ट्रैक्ट सिक्योरिटी पर 2023 का सर्वे

Solidity のスマート コントラクト セキュリティに関する 2023 年の調査

Solidity의 스마트 계약 보안

Uma pesquisa de 2023 sobre segurança de contratos inteligentes para solidez

Sağlamlıkta Akıllı Sözleşme Güvenliği

Khảo sát năm 2023 về bảo mật hợp đồng thông minh cho sự vững chắc

2023 年 Solidity 智能合约安全性调查

Solidity RSA signatures for aidrops and presales: Beating ECDSA and Merkle Trees in Gas Efficiency By and Suthan Somadeva Michael Burke Introduction Creating a contract that gives certain addresses permissions goes by several names: airdrops, presale, whitelist, allowlist, and so forth. But the essence of the idea is there is a set of addresses that have special permission to buy a high-demand token for a desirable price (sometimes free). There are three established solutions for this: mappings, Merkle trees, and ECDSA signatures. The relative merits of these approaches have already been , so we will summarize the results: discussed elsewhere ECDSA Signature Verification (Gas: 29,293) using Merkle proofs (Gas: 30,517, 128 addresses) A mapping presale works when the seller enters the addresses of the customers into a mapping that goes from address to boolean to note if the address is privileged or not. The mapping is set to false after the buyer completes the transaction. This ensures only addresses that are marked true can make a purchase. This is very gas efficient for the buyer, but the seller could allow-listing thousands of addresses, (it will cost at least 22,100 gas to add an address to the allowlist). spend millions of gas Because of this, Merkle Trees and ECDSA signatures (using the precompile , or better yet, the published by OpenZeppelin), are often preferred to mappings. The gas cost (for the buyer) of executing the ECDSA signature verification is 29,293 gas. This includes the 21,000 to initiate the transaction, so the ECDSA cost is 8,293. Note that this includes reading the signing address from storage, but this cost is necessary or we won’t be able to invalidate signatures. ecerecover more secure wrapper around it Merkle Trees vary in cost based on tree size (larger trees require larger Merkle proofs), but if over 1,000 addresses are in the Merkle tree, it will cost at least 32,000 gas (or more) to verify the address. This cost is clearly inferior to ECDSA. The goal, then, is to beat ECDSA which costs 8,293 gas. To keep solutions apples-to-apples, the alternative solution must: Be able to nullify allow-listed addresses. Merkle trees can change their root, ECDSA , can change their signing address, and mappings can set the value to false. Not impose a substantial cost burden on the seller the way mappings do Cost less than 8,200 gas for the buyer (including a storage load) Not be compromised on security Prerequisites To understand the proposed methodology, the reader should be familiar with the following subjects: Precompiled smart contracts ( , ) recommended reading stackexchange Metamorphic contracts ( , ) introduction recommended reading Access lists ( ) recommended reading How to use digital signatures and their appropriate use cases in blockchain applications How gas cost is computed, especially as it relates to calldata, opcodes, storage, and memory usage. The RSA Algorithm If we want to substantially beat ECDSA, we need to find a different cryptographic algorithm that allows for the proof of set membership. ECDSA is actually the newer, cooler version of the original digital signature algorithm, RSA. ECDSA relies on discrete logarithms over elliptic curves being hard (hence the name – elliptic curve digital signature algorithm). RSA (named after its authors, Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) relies on large integers being hard to factor. In terms of age, RSA was published in the 1970s, but ECDSA became a formal specification in the early 2000s. We will not explain RSA in detail here, but some prerequisites are in order. The signer picks two large prime numbers p and q, and multiplies them together to produce n. This is the first part of the public key. Second, the signer picks a small prime (can be hardcoded to for our usecase), and publishes the pair as the public key. Behind the scenes, the signer computes n e 3 (n, e) t = (p - 1) * (q - 1)
d = t^(-1) % n The number is the private key. If an adversary could decompose into and , then computing would be trivial. But it is known that . To sign a message, the signer hashes the message to get and raises to the power . That is, d n p q d integer factorization is hard m h h d s = h(m) ^ d % n The signer then publishes as the message and signature. (m, s) The verifier then hashes and raises it to the power . Remember, and are the public key. If and only if m e mod n e n s == s ^ e % n then the signature is valid for the public key . Note that if is extremely large, then the probability that by random chance is vanishingly small. If the equality checks out, then we know the signature is valid for the public key. (n, e) n s == s ^ e % n To do this in Ethereum, we would simply sign an address as s = buyerAddress ^ d % n and the smart contract would verify msg.sender == s ^ e % n Using only 256 bits is unsafe We say “factoring integers is hard” but clearly this implies that the number must be large enough. For example, 33 is composed of two prime numbers and is trivial to decompose. Thankfully, we have real-world benchmarks of what the state-of-the-art can accomplish in the . RSA Factoring Challenge To clarify, the number of “bits” refers to the size of the public key. Therefore, when we say “RSA 2048”, this means the number n, the modulus, has 2048 bits. When comparing key sizes, it’s important to remember that each additional bit doubles the size of the number. So 700 bits is exponentially more secure than 350 bits, not twice as secure. The largest key to be cracked (factored) so far had 829 bits, and it required a modern supercomputer to do it. The team utilized approximately 2700 CPU core-years, using a 2.1 GHz Intel Xeon Gold 6130 CPU. The cheapest 16 core CPU on AWS costs $0.40 cents per hour, so the cost to crack this key is in the order of $9.4 million dollars. Even assuming generous discounts from the cloud provider, the cost is in the millions. Modular arithmetic with more than 256 bits in Solidity Ethereum only supports 32-byte data types, so by default, we cannot carry out s ^ e % n Thankfully, the Ethereum blockchain added a precompiled contract in specifically to support modular arithmetic. To use it, the base, exponent, and modulus must be loaded into memory in abi encoded format. Then the contract living at address is invoked. EIP 198 0x05 Storing the public key becomes a bit of an issue if you use a secure amount of bits. If the key size is 1024 bits, that necessitates 4 storage slots. To read the public key out of storage would be four operations, for a total of 8,400 gas. This by itself is already less efficient than the ECDSA solution benchmarked above. SLOAD If we use immutable variables, this cost is largely eliminated, but this creates a weakness if we cannot retroactively remove someone from the presale. In traditional ECDSA or Merkle Trees, we would just replace the signing address or the Merkle Root. This isn’t possible if we use an immutable variable. However, storing the public key in the bytecode instead of storage is the key idea. Reading an external contract’s bytecode ( ) costs 2,600 gas, which is far less than the 8,400 gas of reading each part of the public key in four pieces. EXTCODECOPY To invalidate a public key, we could simply create a new contract, and update a storage variable to point to the new address. But that adds back an additional 2,100 gas. It turns out, it is possible to store the external contract’s address (whose bytecode stores the public key) in an immutable variable, but still invalidate the public key by mutating the external smart contract’s bytecode. Invalidating the public key with the metamorphic contract pattern A smart contract is created by loading the deployment bytecode into memory, then returning the range of the bytecode which contains the runtime code. See more . here When a smart contract is created with the command, the address of the contract can be predicted in advance. The address is calculated from the combination of salt, the deployer, and the initialization bytecode. If the contract self-destructs, then a new contract at the same address can be deployed. create2 Note that the address is a function of the initialization code, not the deployed code. It is possible to deploy different bytecode by having the initialization code load a different runtime code. By self-destructing and redeploying with the same initialization code but a different deployment code, the bytecode of the contract can mutate. Therefore, we can have a smart contract whose first bytes are for self-destructing under a certain condition, but the rest of the bytes are just the RSA public key. k Because the address is determined in advance, we can store the address of this metamorphic contract in an immutable variable. We can from that address when we need the public key. To replace the public key, we instruct the contract to , then deploy a new contract to that address. EXTCODECOPY selfdestruct Saving an additional 100 gas with access lists added a new type of transaction that allows the user to specify in advance which addresses and storage slots will be accessed. This allows the nodes to prefetch those values from storage, thus speeding up execution time. Using an access list transaction when calling an external contract can save 100 gas. Note that this saving does not apply when a smart contract accesses its own storage variable. Because this RSA presale airdrop design relies on an external contract to store the public key, then using an access list is appropriate. EIP 2930 Benchmarks: Gas cost vs key size Most of the gas cost comes from having very large calldata as a result of large signatures. If the key size is set to 1024 bits, then the call data will be 128 bytes. Each byte costs 16 gas, so the total gas cost just to have calldata that large is 2,048 gas. Compared to most other use cases, ours uses a considerable amount of memory, and Ethereum charges for this. Why this saves gas relative to ECDSA The benchmarks make it clear that the larger the key (and hence the signature), the larger the gas cost. Our design exploits the fact that the precompile assigns a low price to raise numbers to low power. The cost of executing the precompiled contract under those conditions at is only a few hundred gas compared to thousands for executing the precompile for ECDSA. 0x05 Choosing a key size Although a key with 829 bits has been factored in, it requires a modern supercomputer to do so. For applications such as airdropping lower-value tokens or putting NFTs on a presale, an attacker does not have the incentive to spend six figures to a million dollars to factor a public key and obtain an NFT in a presale. The most expensive Ethereum tokens at this time of writing ( and ) cost approximately $100,000 a piece, so for the vast majority of applications, it is not economical for an attacker to try to factor the public key. Fidenza Bored Ape Yacht Club Remember, each bit doubles the difficulty of factoring the integer, so as of 2022, most low-value token presales are probably safe with 896 bits. In this case, saving users over 2,500 gas compared to ECDSA is compelling. Key Size Benchmarks This was conducted with Solidity compiler version 0.8.17 with the optimizer set to 1 million RSA-896 (Gas: 27,040) RSA-960 (Gas: 27,115) RSA-1024 (Gas: 27,311) RSA-2048 (Gas: 29,901) Conclusion We present a novel method for assigning addresses to a presale or airdrop that is more efficient than the known solutions today. By combining the modular exponentiation precompile with the metamorphic contract pattern and the access list transaction, we can validate secure RSA signatures on-chain in a gas-efficient manner. Our work is only a proof of concept at this stage. Developers are advised to use caution using the code in production. This project was created by and as part of the . The code implementation and unit tests are on . Suthan Somadeva Michael Burke RareSkills Solidity Bootcamp github Also published here.

Using Solidity RSA Signatures for Presales and Airdrops

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The TechBeat: How to Use an Uncensored AI Model and Train It With Your Data (12/29/2023)

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The TechBeat: How to Use an Uncensored AI Model and Train It With Your Data (12/27/2023)

Hey Hackers! Welcome to the winner announcement of the . As technology advances, the significance of cryptographic techniques like zero-knowledge proofs has become increasingly evident in ensuring privacy and security. We are thrilled to host this one-month-contest celebrating the fascinating realm of zero-knowledge proofs. We thank the whole HackerNoon community for participating in the contest! Your participation matters, and it will help us bring you more sponsored tags in the future. Zero Knowledge Proof Writing Contest by Rareskills and HackerNoon To get all winner announcements and notifications directly in your mail, subscribe to hackernooncontests’ updates today! You will see the subscribe option on the right side of this story. About Sponsor is a grad school for web3 engineers seeking hands-on knowledge in web3 development. RareSkills Zero Knowledge Proof Contest: Top 10 Nominations We picked all the stories with the tag on HackerNoon, published in November, and selected the top stories weighing in the following factors: #zero-knowledge-proofs Number of hours read The number of people reached Sponsor feedback Here’s the list of the top 10 stories: by . Zero-Knowledge Proofs: It's Like Magic, but I'll Explain It @windley by . A Privacy Revolution in Web3 With Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) @vladislavbilay by . Unlocking the Magic of Zero-Knowledge Proofs: Disintegration of Philosophy and Science (Part 1) @damocles by . The Rise of Zero-Knowledge Rollups in Ethereum Scaling @mariefromdcenter by . Zero-Knowledge Proofs in Blockchain Voting @induction by . Enhancing Open Banking with Zero Knowledge Proofs: A Technical Exploration @mickymultani by . Zero Knowledge Proofs: What's a zkOracle? @marlene by . Zkp2p: The End of Centralized Exchanges @thebojda by . ZKML in DeFi: A Secure Revolution in Decentralized Finance @mkaufmann by . Data Security in the Cloud: A New Era of Trust @mkaufmann Congratulations to all the finalists for making it to the top 10! The winner of #zero-knowledge-proofs with the most votes is: https://hackernoon.com/zkp2p-the-end-of-centralized-exchanges?embedable=true “Verifying a DKIM signature on-chain with a smart contract would be very expensive. It would involve uploading the entire mail, computing the hash, and verifying the RSA signature. Furthermore, the mail might contain sensitive information. Fortunately, there is a solution to this problem: technology, more specifically, zkSNARK. Using zkSNARK, we can prove off-chain that the signature in the email is valid and that the data being shared publicly with the smart contract (typically amount and target account number) is also valid. The outcome of this process is a zero-knowledge proof that can be cheaply verified on the smart contract. With this solution, email verification can now be efficiently achieved.” zero-knowledge-proof Congratulations ! You have won $1000. Here are the next steps to claim your reward: @thebojda Please contact yes-reply@hackernoon.com and sidra@hackernoon.com using the email ID attached to the winner's hackernoon account. We will validate your claim and share a form requesting your bank details for reward distribution. You will receive your winnings in 2-4 weeks after filling out the form. Please note that you must contact us within 60 days after the winners’ announcement date. The HackerNoon writing contests primarily aim to celebrate quality content and recruit educational stories for our community. We congratulate all the finalists. However, the Editorial team can ban a writer and/or disqualify a story if we find any misconduct like plagiarism, copyright infringement, or disinformation. Shoutout to all the finalists and participants! Visit to learn more about running and upcoming contests. contests.hackernoon.com

The Zero Knowledge Proofs Writing Contest: Winner Announced!

জিরো নলেজ প্রুফ রাইটিং কনটেস্ট: বিজয়ী ঘোষণা!

Der Zero Knowledge Proofs-Schreibwettbewerb: Gewinner bekannt gegeben!

Concurso de redacción de pruebas de conocimiento cero: ¡Se anuncia el ganador!

Le concours de rédaction d'épreuves Zero Knowledge : le gagnant est annoncé !

शून्य ज्ञान प्रमाण लेखन प्रतियोगिता: विजेता की घोषणा!

ゼロ知識証明ライティングコンテスト: 優勝者発表!

영지식 증명 쓰기 콘테스트: 우승자가 발표되었습니다!

Concurso de Redação de Provas de Conhecimento Zero: Anunciado o vencedor!

Конкурс написания доказательств с нулевым разглашением: объявлен победитель!

Sıfır Bilgi Kanıtı Yazma Yarışması: Kazanan Açıklandı!

Cuộc thi viết bằng chứng kiến thức Zero: Người chiến thắng được công bố!

零知识证明写作大赛：获奖者公布！

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RARESKILLS

rareskills.io

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Since 2022

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