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Oracle vs. Google (2014) Court Filing, retrieved on May 9, 2014, is part of . You can jump to any part in this filing . This is part 1 of 16. HackerNoon’s Legal PDF Series here Introduction E. JOSHUA ROSENKRANZ, Orrick, Herrington & Sutcliffe LLP, of New York, New York, argued for plaintiffappellant. With him on the brief were MARK S. DAVIES, ANDREW D. SILVERMAN, KELLY M. DALEY; and ANNETTE L. HURST, GABRIEL M. RAMSEY, and ELIZABETH C. MCBRIDE, of San Francisco, California. Of counsel on the brief were DORIAN E. DALEY, DEBORAH K. MILLER, MATTHEW SARBORARIA, and ANDREW C. TEMKIN, Oracle America, Inc., of Redwood Shores, California; and DALE M. CENDALI, DIANA M. TORRES, SEAN B. FERNANDES, and JOSHUA L. SIMMONS, Kirkland & Ellis LLP, of New York, New York. Of counsel were SUSAN M. DAVIES, Kirkland & Ellis LLP, of New York, New York; MICHAEL A. JACOBS, Morrison & Foerster LLP, of San Francisco, California; and KENNETH A. KUWAYTI, of Palo Alto, California. ROBERT A. VAN NEST, Keker & Van Nest LLP, of San Francisco, California, argued for defendant-crossappellant. With him on the brief were CHRISTA M. ANDERSON, STEVEN A. HIRSCH, MICHAEL S. KWUN, and DANIEL E. JACKSON. Of counsel on the brief were IAN C. BALLON and HEATHER MEEKER, Greenberg Traurig, LLP, of East Palo Alto, California; RENNY HWANG, Google Inc., of Mountain View, California; and DARYL L. JOSEFFER and BRUCE W. BABER, King & Spalding LLP, of Washington, DC. MARCIA B. PAUL, Davis Wright Tremaine LLP, of New York, New York, for amicus curiae Ralph Oman. With her on the brief were LACY H. KOONCE, III and DEBORAH A. ADLER. WILLIAM A. RUDY, Lathrop & Gage LLP, of Kansas City, Missouri, for amici curiae Picture Archive Council of America, Inc., et al. With him on the brief were CAROLE E. HANDLER and BRIANNA E. DAHLBERG, of Los Angeles, California. GREGORY G. GARRE, Latham & Watkins, LLP, of Washington, DC, for amici curiae Microsoft Corporation, et al. With him on the brief was LORI ALVINO MCGILL. Of counsel on the brief were PAUL T. DACIER, KRISHNENDU GUPTA, EMC Corporation, of Hopkinton, Massachusetts; and DOUGLAS LUFTMAN, NETAPP, Inc., of Sunnyvale, California. JARED BOBROW, Weil, Gotshal & Manges LLP, of Redwood Shores, California, for amici curiae Eugene H. Spafford, Ph.D., et al. With him on the brief was AARON Y. HUANG. MATTHEW S. HELLMAN, Jenner & Block LLP, of Washington, DC, for amicus curiae BSA/The Software Alliance. With him on the brief was PAUL M. SMITH. STEVEN T. COTTREAU, Clifford Chance US LLP, of Washington, DC, for amici curiae, Scott McNealy, et al. MEREDITH JACOB, Program on Information Justice and Intellectual Property, American University, Washington College of Law, of Washington, DC, for amici curiae Intellectual Property Law Professors. JULIE P. SAMUELS, Electronic Frontier Foundation, of San Francisco, California, for amici curiae Computer Scientists. With her on the brief was MICHAEL BARCLAY. Of counsel on the brief was JASON M. SCHULTZ, NYU Technology Law and Policy Clinic, NYU School of Law, of New York, New York. JONATHAN BAND, Jonathan Band PLLC, of Washington, DC, filed a brief for amicus curiae Computer & Communications Industry Association. With him on the brief was MATTHEW SCHRUERS, Computer & Communications Industry Association, of Washington, DC. CHAD RUBACK, The Ruback Law Firm, of Dallas, Texas, filed a brief for amici curiae Rackspace US, Inc., et al. JENNIFER M. URBAN, Samuelson Law, Technology and Public Policy Clinic, U.C. Berkeley School of Law, of Berkeley, California for amici curiae Software Innovators, et al. Before O’MALLEY, PLAGER, and TARANTO, Circuit Judges. O’MALLEY, Circuit Judge. This copyright dispute involves 37 packages of computer source code. The parties have often referred to these groups of computer programs, individually or collectively, as “application programming interfaces,” or API packages, but it is their content, not their name, that matters. The predecessor of Oracle America, Inc. (“Oracle”) wrote these and other API packages in the Java programming language, and Oracle licenses them on various terms for others to use. Many software developers use the Java language, as well as Oracle’s API packages, to write applications (commonly referred to as “apps”) for desktop and laptop computers, tablets, smartphones, and other devices. Oracle filed suit against Google Inc. (“Google”) in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, alleging that Google’s Android mobile operating system infringed Oracle’s patents and copyrights. The jury found no patent infringement, and the patent claims are not at issue in this appeal. As to the copyright claims, the parties agreed that the jury would decide infringement, fair use, and whether any copying was de minimis, while the district judge would decide copyrightability and Google’s equitable defenses. The jury found that Google infringed Oracle’s copyrights in the 37 Java packages and a specific computer routine called “rangeCheck,” but returned a noninfringement verdict as to eight decompiled security files. The jury deadlocked on Google’s fair use defense. After the jury verdict, the district court denied Oracle’s motion for judgment as a matter of law (“JMOL”) regarding fair use as well as Google’s motion for JMOL with respect to the rangeCheck files. Order on Motions for Judgment as a Matter of Law, Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., No. 3:10-cv-3561 (N.D. Cal. May 10, 2012), ECF No. 1119. Oracle also moved for JMOL of infringe-ment with respect to the eight decompiled security files. In granting that motion, the court found that: (1) Google admitted to copying the eight files; and (2) no reasonable jury could find that the copying was de minimis. Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., No. C 10-3561, 2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 66417 (N.D. Cal. May 11, 2012) (“Order Granting JMOL on Decompiled Files”). Shortly thereafter, the district court issued its decision on copyrightability, finding that the replicated elements of the 37 API packages—including the declaring code and the structure, sequence, and organization—were not subject to copyright protection. Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 872 F. Supp. 2d 974 (N.D. Cal. 2012) (“Copyrightability Decision”). Accordingly, the district court entered final judgment in favor of Google on Oracle’s copyright infringement claims, except with respect to the rangeCheck code and the eight decompiled files. Final Judgment, Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., No. 3:10-cv3561 (N.D. Cal. June 20, 2012), ECF No. 1211. Oracle appeals from the portion of the final judgment entered against it, and Google cross-appeals from the portion of that same judgment entered in favor of Oracle as to the rangeCheck code and eight decompiled files. Because we conclude that the declaring code and the structure, sequence, and organization of the API packages are entitled to copyright protection, we reverse the district court’s copyrightability determination with instructions to reinstate the jury’s infringement finding as to the 37 Java packages. Because the jury deadlocked on fair use, we remand for further consideration of Google’s fair use defense in light of this decision. With respect to Google’s cross-appeal, we affirm the district court’s decisions: (1) granting Oracle’s motion for JMOL as to the eight decompiled Java files that Google copied into Android; and (2) denying Google’s motion for JMOL with respect to the rangeCheck function. Accordingly, we affirm-in-part, reverse-in-part, and remand for further proceedings. Continue Reading . Here About HackerNoon Legal PDF Series: We bring you the most important technical and insightful public domain court case filings. This court case 10-CV-3561 retrieved on September 22, 2023, from is part of the public domain. The court-created documents are works of the federal government, and under copyright law, are automatically placed in the public domain and may be shared without legal restriction. law.justia.com

Google Admits to Copying Eight Decompiled Security Files Developed by Oracle as Part of API Package

TL;DR Kupa3 allows you to draw connections between scripts on specific website. It search for javascript code or source attribute, in html code, and crawls it in order to draw a dependency graph. This approach can help bug hunters to discover subdomains and examine javascript calls, OSINT researchers to check what companies are connected to each other or for tracking advertisement companies. At the end, graph is saved in gexf format for exploring it in Gephi. Script is here → https://github.com/woj-ciech/kupa3 Example graph for Reddit.com Introduction I’m still pretty amazed to see how many advertisement scripts are on any website. It tracks your every click, create a heat map of your mouse movements, gets information about plugins, browser, resolution or battery among others. If you have enough information about user it’s easy to deanonymise him based on multiple factories, which are collected with every visit. Additional cross referencing to IP addresses allows them to track you no matter of incognito mode or used browser. Do you know what companies are the biggest fishes in the business? What they do with collected information? How theirs scripts look like? The tool makes it easier to follow each script on websites with all dependencies. Let’s start from the beginning and check how kupa3 can help in your investigation. Note: Some of the scripts are legitimate and really improving performance and do not collect information. Photo by on Cris Tagupa Unsplash Bug bounty Javascript code is always interesting from bug hunter point of view. It can contain additional targets like subdomains or makes internal/external calls. It discloses used libraries and if deobfuscated enough can reveal tokens, debug options, keys or cloud providers. As an example, let’s try with vice service and their main website. Vice.com If we zoom in to one of the key nodes of graph (pink one), the connections are clearly visible. Script „common.b0c375050cc69b89e1a0.js” includes many links. It’s worth to mention that not only javascript links are fetched. All of the url are collected and if it meets js code it goes deeper until there will be no further references. Discover subdomain prometheus.vice.com On the first sight it may be a little unreadable. The best way to interpret the graph is Overview tab in Gephi. You can point on one of the node and rest will be grayed out, which help you to define connections and read clear nodes labels. We extracted subdomain prometheus.vice.com, as you may notice, there are more subdomains included in in js code. Tracking ads Let’s jump in to main topic, i.e. tracking advertisement companies via scripts and connections between them. As previously mentioned trackers are placed everywhere, whatever site you go to, someone will be tracking you. Before that research I was aware about Google Analytics as a key platform of tracking and serving ads, but it turns out that there are lot of players in this field. Majority of them are hard to trace to specific owner or company. Moreover, some of the scripts returns 404 or 403 errors, which means that they are not accessible directly or there is no proper cookie or referer attribute set up in the request. What is interesting, some bots start tracking you when you add something to your basket or cooperate in other significant way with the website. One of the coolest graph is for nike.com. It has so many trackers that it is a good example. nike.com graph One of the first loaded script is anti-bot detection, in this case Akamai is used. It is highly obfuscated and eyes are bleeding from first sight. Actually, I’ve learned that small war exist between people that creates bots to generate verified Nike+ account and bot detection mechanisms. These accounts can be resold in order to get discount. Funny thing was, when I was searching for advertisement domain, google was giving me results like „How to remove <domain_name>” or scan results from online antivirus engines. In my opinion, that’s why almost every ad company uses different domain name for serving ads and other for content about actual company. Link that arouse my suspicion the most, was , which does not respond and it’s served from and . Probably it’s only for Chinese citizens. https://gridsumdissector[.]com/js/Clients/GWD-000673-204DB5/gs.js web.nike.com/neo/main/neo.js nike.com/neo/main/neo.js Main website, redirects to SSO login and it’s all in Chinese by default. Last announcement on their website was from 2016 and API documentation is also in Chinese. Domain is registered to Beijing Innovative Linkage Technology Ltd with Bejing as a residence. The registrar have deserved his place in fraud-reports here . One of the subdomain allows directory listing with ton of scripts contains references to cntv.cn with registrar as CCTV International Network Co., Ltd. . http://fraud-reports.wikia.com/wiki/Beijing_Innovative https://www.bloomberg.com/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=99156085 Subdomain reveals scripts and links to other company Moreover IP 218.202.xxx.xx was found as a link and it belongs to China Mobile. Having this proof, we can say that these two companies cooperates with themselves. It’s tough to get any information about Chinese companies, especially if it’s related to marketing, advertising and tracking. Google indexed some of the docs from their SSO login page and theme for dashboard for customer. Thanks to this, we can take a look what is behind the curtain. Documentation regarding tracking stats Tracking dashboard It’s not the only one, which is hard to trace and make full sense out of the company and theirs scripts. Other tracking companies that are connected with nike.com: rmtag.com linksynergy.com emjcd.com facebook.com yahoo.com usabilla.com serving-sys.com adnxs.com adrttt.com segment.com bluecore.com mediav.com adsrvr.com doubleclick.com yandexmetrica.com s.amazon-adsystem.com demdex.com Do you recognize some of the companies? Do you trust them and allow executing code in your browser? The gridsumdissector was used only by example, there are lot more with shady connections and adware activities. You can check by yourself, by looking into adrttt[.]com domain (registered in Istanbul). With little OSINT skills, you can take a look on their infrastructure, linked companies and then follow the rabbit hole. Conclusion The moral from this story is that you never know where your data is going, lot of companies are engaged in the race for your browsing habits to makes advertisement more and more personal and targeted. Additionally, you can’t be 100% sure what data they collect because of obfuscation of java script code. It can be reversed but it’s very time consuming and not worth the effort. My suggest is to block them all.

Tracking the trackers. Draw connections between scripts and domains on website.

Imagine a scenario: a client asks what they should do to improve their organic rankings. After a diligent tech audit, market analysis, and a conversion funnel review, you have to deliver some tough recommendations: “You have to redesign your site architecture,” or “You have to migrate your site altogether,” or even “You have to rethink your business model, because currently you are not providing any significant value.” is gaining more importance after value-proposition has become the major contributor to business growth and sales. Once can increase value of their website by inculcating the newest design trends of 2018 in their website. Website design Following are the newest trends to follow. 3D animation Another way of turning your website into a separate universe with realistic elements in a constant movement. 3D animation captures the attention and makes increase the dwell time on the website. Once such great interactive effect is . The script is available for free, one such great implementation of the same can be seen at . particle.js Kupanzone Cinemagraphs Pictures of the highest quality will no longer surprise anyone. However, living pictures would surely do that. Think of a interactive website design and add a bit of magic to your website by making some elements on your website move. When you’re trying to convey complex information in a visual format, a static image often just won’t do. After all, complexity tends to unfold over time — a still image of a UI only tells you what’s in it, not how to use it. Enter the <cinema> element. Storytelling Designers and content specialists need to be cognizant of the vastly different motivations of a website’s different target personas, and guide each accordingly. Once fascinating story told by your website can increase people’s engagement. In 2018, The whole website should reflect one interactive story well connected to your brand. You’ll also notice the emergence of “flashing” or “vibrating” colors in many website UIs. While these color combinations create incredibly striking effects — including ghostly afterimages that seem to linger in your eye as you scroll on — it’s a great of adding context in the story. Virtual Reality video Future is closer than you think. It starts now with VR video. Content that shows your products and services in the most beneficial light will get you most engaged customers. Mood for interface When the website design understands you, anticipates your mood, and knows what you want: how cool is that? Make your website change its colors as if it could read people’s mind. Sounds hard but is totally doable. For a very basic example, the website can change its colors as the user scrolls deeper into the webpage. Expressive typography 2018 demands your typography to be the expression of your message. Colorful, creative and unusual. Your type reflects everything you need, from wanderlust to catering. Just choose the elements right and combine them with your design language. Back in the bad old days of non-retina screens and poor font support, sticking to sans serif fonts in your web interfaces made a lot of sense. But as both screens and font rendering technologies — not to mention, custom font support — become more robust, we’re starting to see more and more elaborate typefaces taking center stage. Or at least, much more prominent supporting roles. UX writing Before anything else, ask a simple but critical question: What’s the purpose of your website? Hint: It’s not enough to or redesign just because everyone else is doing it. You need to identify the goals that your website will accomplish. develop a new website If brevity is soul of wit, UX writing is the soul of your web development in 2018. Make the textual content clear and precise. With UX writing, you can boost your sales and save a lots of space on the web page. Follow these simple principles of purpose-driven design for your business website and users will be driven down a purposeful journey that’s so seamless, they won’t even realize they’ve reached the intended destination. Whether that means converting them into a sales lead through a downloaded piece of content on your site, or as simple as becoming a name they remember for future business relations, know your end goal and let it guide everything you do.

7 Website Design Trends for 2018

Just like other people who lost a huge chunk of money to Bitcoins, Apple co-founder Steve Wozniak says that even he was a victim of a bitcoin scam. In a recent conference at the Economic Times of India, Steve exclaimed how he was involved in a bitcoin fraud where he was stolen off 7 bit coins. “Somebody bought them from me online through a credit card and they cancelled the credit card payment,” he went on to say. “It was that easy. And it was from a stolen credit card number so you can never get it back.” What really had happened that Steve went ahead to sell his bitcoins to an unsolicited person. He transferred his Bitcoins without any verification and as soon as the scammer received the coins, he cancelled out on the credit card. Therefore the payment never reached Steve’s accounts. Wozniak said he bought the bitcoin when it was priced at $700, but his loss would be valued at approximately $71,400 today as per the current market prices. Even with some transactions going south, Wozniak is still a cryptocurrency proponent, having maintained his bitcoin holdings up until late last year. “Bitcoins to me was a currency that was not manipulated by the governments. It is mathematical, it is pure, it can’t be altered,” Wozniak was quoted as saying which is really true. Not just bitcoins, but also cryptocurrencies fit the way Wozniak described bitcoins. That’s the reason why even is planning on launching its own coin. Amazon He revealed in January that he decided to sell his bitcoin holdings because he was interested in the cryptocurrency only as an experiment. He wanted to sell it because he didn’t want to be one of those people who would keep watching the price fluctuate rather he wanted to sell it off and be care free of its tension. Although it resulted into a completely unexpected outcome.

Steve Wozniak Scammed off 7 Bitcoins

The cashless store launched a while ago which set a new benchmark for traditional retail stores. The traditional brick and mortar looking store hits you right at the front door when you make an entry to realize its not a traditional one. It looks like a subway station allowing people to enter via a QR code generated in the Amazon app. AmazonGo Is Set to Go AmazonGo went live in Seattle right near the Amazon campus after one year of beta testing. It uses the most hi-tech systems to keep track of what the shoppers are buying which takes your shopping experience to a new high. No lines. No checkout. No, seriously. The operations were started 4 years back to create such an advance ecosystem of shopping. Its actually surprising to see their vision come live. Their vision started with a statement ‘What if we can use the most advanced machine learning, computer vision and AI into the supermarkets’. Which was accomplished so much so that you never have to wait in the line again or at the checkouts or at the front of the cashier. That’s what AmazonGo is. It’s just a simple experience. grab and go It was a big moment in the history for retail. Chinese and other retailers across the globe will also try to replicate the same idea to provide a seamless customer experience as Amazon is providing through AmazonGo. That’s why is not leaking the technology they used. Amazon How does AmazonGo works? Use the AmazonGo app to enter the store. Just scan your barcode at the gate, put away your phone and start shopping. Its really that simple, seriously. Take whatever you like, anything you pick is automatically added to your cart. If you change your mind about that product, just put it back and its technology will update your virtual cart automatically. It uses computer vision, deep learning algorithms and sensor fusion, much like which is found in self driving cars to identify product pick ups and drop offs. They call it ‘Just walk out’ technology. Once you got everything you want, you can just go. It uses multiple cameras and sensors which are spread throughout the store to know the location of the products. As soon as one picks up a product, the sensors detect the change on the rack and via proximity signals it tracks the person’s account and makes an addition to their virtual cart. There are no shopping carts or baskets inside AmazonGo. Instead, they have paper bags. Where customers can directly put off their products in their bags. Amazon’s technology simply changes the role of employees, employees are basically for helping customers and to troubleshoot any technical issue or for simply restocking the racks. Employees are also available to help the customers find items. Just besides the store their is kitchen area with chefs preparing fresh meals available for sale. Apart from the aforementioned work, employees also sit in the wine area to check IDs of the customers who are up for shopping wine. Finally, when you leave the AmazonGo store, its ‘Just walk out’ technology adds up your virtual cart and charges your Amazon account via Amazon pay or other affiliated service. You can ofcourse get for the same while checking out and you will receive your virtual receipt as you go out. And you can keep going. That’s the amazing AmazonGo. Amazon coupons

Amazon Goes Future, AmazonGo

Straight to the Point Software developers are busy people. They have no time to read long, glossy texts. This post is for the experienced Pythonista, so let’s get straight to the point. The is one of my favorites. It’s an extremely powerful structure — useful any time one needs to treat a collection and its basic elements uniformly. Whenever we have a tree-like data structure, be it a file system, cloud stack resources, code or anything composed from smaller parts, the is the first design pattern to consider. Composite Design Pattern Composite Pattern In its traditional OO formulation, however, this approach has some serious drawbacks. Look carefully at the typical Composite Design Pattern class diagram: Fig 1: Composite Design Pattern (from ) Wikipedia Do you see the problem here? If not, that’s understandable. There are actually two, closely-related problems. First, the traditional Abstract Base Class approach makes overloading ALL abstract interface methods mandatory. Second, as a consequence, the Composite class has to overload all abstract interface methods, even while their implementation would most likely be something as trivial as going over all child components and invoking the corresponding method one by one. It could be Depth First or Breadth First traversing; in most cases, nobody would care which one. All in all, the outcome of the Composite operation is some form of aggregation of the child components’ operations. If the abstract interface had only one or two methods, that might be a minor problem, although one could argue that it subtly violates the (DRY) principle. Don’t Repeat Yourself But, what if you have half-dozen or more methods? Overloading all of them would be tedious. Oh, yes, I hear you telling me: “apply the and avoid fat interface bloatware.” Maybe, unless I will need a Composite for each segregated interface (then the total number of overloads will be the same if not larger). Interface Segregation Principle, But, what if I tell you that enforcing the is not always practical? Here is an example of an “Abstract” Base Class I recently worked on during the course of a project: Interface Segregation Principle Service Template Compiler Fig 1: CompositeResourceTemplateBuilder Here, I had a number of challenges to address. I needed to provide a common interface for building cloud resource-specific parts of an AWS CloudFormation Stack Template. Some resources will come from the outside, and thus need to be defined as Stack Template parameters. Others will be created inside the stack and need to be exposed via AWS CloudFormation Stack Template outputs. Some resources might need special conditions to be defined, many will not. Some will define special descriptors for every function (e.g., API Gateway route and integration), some will not. Some will contribute additional properties to every cloud function resource descriptor (e.g. xRay ActiveTracing); others will not need it. Many will need special environment variables to be defined (e.g., DynamoDB Table reference), but still, some minority (e.g., API Gateway) will not. And finally, almost every resource, with rare exceptions, will need to provide some access permissions for the functions (‘principle of the least privilege’, you know). With such a high degree of variability, defining abstract methods turns out to be impractical — many resources will need to implement only a small subset of the overall 8 methods. In this case, a variation of the worked better — the Abstract Base Class defined a default implementation of each method just returning an empty Tuple (or doing nothing in the case of building permissions). Null Object Design Pattern Applying the to separate 4 methods invoked on behalf of the whole service from 4 methods invoked for each cloud function also turned out to be more of theoretical than practical value — almost every resource will need to implement some subset of each group. Interface Segregation Principle Now, I’m going to have multiple resources in my service and I need to run the template resource building for each of them and for each function. I might even need to organize my resources in some form of deeper hierarchy (explaining why it’s so would be a long story — maybe in another article). Applying the seemed to be a very natural choice, but overloading all 8 functions just to define a dump loop running over the composite parts did not sound well. Many years ago, after finishing 2 packs of “Belomor Kanal” (sort of Soviet papirosen I used to smoke as a young software engineer) during a long debugging white night, I learned a very simple principle: when a problem could be defined and solved in a formal way, do it. Every seemingly shorter cut would cost more pain and humiliation. Composite Design Pattern In the case of my problem, it sounded exactly this: rather than try to find a special solution for the CompositeResourceBuilder, formulate it as a general case problem and solve it. How could such a formal problem statement be defined? Here you go: reduce For any base (not necessarily abstract) class, automatically define a derived class that will perform a operation for each base class non-void method and foreach operation for each void method By , I meant any method which returns some value, and by method, correspondingly, any method which returns nothing. non-void method void Such a problem statement assumes that the return value type of every non-void method belongs to the . While it sounds intimidating, in practice, it’s fairly simple: it has an identity (e.g., neutral) value (for example, 0 or 1) and associative binary operation (for example, add or multiply). Since all but one of my methods return Tuples, I decided to use reduce over addition. For my case, it was enough. monoid class Ok, how could one automatically define a derived class in Python and the required methods associated with it? For that purpose, Python exist. decorators We need to write a function, which gets a class as a parameter and returns a new class with the required properties. Here is how it could look like: Fig 2: CompositeResourceTemplateBuilder class definition Apparently, it’s fairly simple. We derive a composite class from the base class and prepend it with the @composite decorator. No function overloading, nothing. Looks nice, doesn’t it? Now, what happens inside? The composite is just a function, which obtains the original class, creates and returns a new one: Fig 3: Composite Decorator We first run over each method of the original class (using the Python library), skipping all magic methods (normally surrounded with__) and create a composite version of them. inspect We then define the __init__() method and a new class using the standard Python type() function structure. After that we stick an method into the newly formed class and return it. Nothing too complicated so far. __iter__() The method is also very simple — it just stores the input collection of parts: __init__() Fig 4: Composite Constructor To really understand what’s going on here we need to look at the function: _make_method() Fig 5: Composite _make_method It defines two inner functions: and that check the original method return annotation and return the result of one of them accordingly. It’s amazing how powerful E.W. Dijkstra’s tool is (if applied correctly, of course). _make_reduce() _make_foreach() stepwise program composition We need to sneak into the and functions. First thing first: _make_reduce() _make_foreach() Fig 6: Composite _make_reduce Now, things get a bit more involved. Why in the world would we define yet another inner function? What does it mean that we iterate over self? What’s really going on here? First, we need yet another inner function because of the — without it, we will get a wrapper over only the last method. If this gotcha drives you mad, you are not alone. Python closure gotcha reduce() Second, remember the method defined above? We utilize it here to go over the composite parts in the fashion. How exactly it works will be discussed below. To complete the picture, we need to look at the function: __iter__() Depth First _make_initializer() Fig 7: Composite _make_initializer Only one line of Python code and such “pleasure”! What happens here? Well, remember the monoid identity value mentioned above? This is it. We need to create an initial value for a return type without knowing what it is. If it were one of the Python built-ins, for example, tuple, we could just call it and that’s it. rt() The problem is that the return type might be wrapped with one of the Python , for example, Tuple, and then we need to try our luck with the attribute. generic types __origin__ The function is even simpler: _make_foreach() Fig 8: Composite _make_foreach The same need to deal with the , the same mysterious looping over self, but at least no need to deal with the return type identity value. Python closure gotcha Now, we turn our attention to the Composite iterator: Fig 9: Composite _make_iterator We, once again, need to define yet another inner function. This time, not because of gotcha, but because we really need to keep the Composite class in closure. The inner function is a straightforward, non-recursive implementation of the Depth First algorithm over a tree. Why DepthFirst, and why do we need an Iterator at all? First, the very often comes together with the . The is another popular option, but in this case, I found it less suitable. Iterator Design Pattern Composite Design Pattern Visitor Design Pattern This Iterator allows us to go through the whole Composite Tree and to do something useful; for example, invoke some original method and aggregate the results. But it would also allow us to collect information about which concrete types are present in the Composite Tree (I needed this information in order to decide whether to apply some defaults to the template builder). I did not have any specific requirement to do it exactly Depth First, but the common implementation works this way and I did not see any particular reason why not. The basic algorithm works as a , yielding the Composite parts one by one. It has, however, three special branches triggered by the part type: Python generator If the part is of the same Composite type, we expand the queue from left — this ensures the Depth First traverse The same happens if the part is just an Iterable — a very handy feature that allows for building Composite directly from a collection If the part is of a type derived from the original one, we need to yield it as is — the iteration algorithm will take care of iterating over The later rule is important since the derived class might have some special logic of traversing its parts. Initially, I tried to implement a recursive version (I did not want to deal with deque), but it did not handle a generic Iterable well, so I gave up. All in all, the approach works, and works well. Once it started working, I was surprised by how powerful this generic Composite is. When programming the intricate template building rules, I was able to just throw individual pieces of logic into a Composite without worrying too much about how deep the nesting is (it takes seconds, anyhow). This was a real epiphany saving me a lot of time and effort. As late Steve Jobs used to say: “it just works.” liberation of mind What was even more powerful and surprising — it’s a combination of the and the : Composite Design Pattern Decorator Design Pattern Fig 10: Composite and Decorator ResourceTemplateBuilders The should not be confused with the Python . The class decorator wraps every method of the original base class and does something useful before and/or after the original method. Some people might argue that what I applied was actually the . Decorator Design Pattern decorators Proxy Design Pattern I also had some doubts about choosing a proper name, but finally settled on Decorator. What works extremely well is that Composite and Decorator are mutually complementing pass/block filters. Indeed, unless stated otherwise explicitly, the Composite will just delegate every method invocation to its parts. The Decorator, on the other hand, will do exactly the opposite: unless stated otherwise explicitly, it will block every method invocation with the default implementation, which as we remember, does nothing. Such a combination allows for building a very flexible and powerful policy (“it’s the !” you say, eh?) dynamically from some external configuration. Strategy Design Pattern Instead of Conclusion I have stopped understanding why technical publications feel obligated to follow the commonplace writing : shtantz Introduction, blah, blah Part One, blah, blah Part Two, blah blah … Conclusion, blah, blah Why can’t we software engineers, just share our thoughts as they are hoping that those who need to understand, will? Fortunately, thanks to open, not yet fully commercialized publication platforms like Hacker Noon, we still can. Design patterns and generic programming in Python work, and work very well. One just needs to understand the rules of the game in order not to fall into the over-engineering trap. If you want to debate this assertion, or if you have found any mistake in my reasoning, drop me a line. Previously published at https://python.plainenglish.io/generic-composite-in-python-4b88d6727ad0

The Ultimate Guide To Design Patterns And Generic Composite In Python

A few years back in 2012, a new card network was launched in India as an alternative to Visa and MasterCard. It was named , which sounds like a combination of Indian currency ' ' and the verb ' '. Within just ten years, it became the biggest competitor in the Indian card market and captured in 2020. It became such a severe threat that Visa about the dominance of RuPay to the US Government. RuPay Rupee to pay 60% of the whole market share complained In 2022, when a majority of the population is using RuPay, completely dominating over Visa and MasterCard, a curiosity arises about the whole process. How did RuPay become so powerful in just a few years? The current article tries to discuss the same. Situation Before RuPay Visa and MasterCard were dominating in the Indian card markets before RuPay. However, they were only concerned with a small percentage of the Indian population, the upper class. Back in the day, they had support for only 55 banks in India, most of which were corporate or private banks. Until recently, the majority of India's population was unaware of such amenities, and even if they were, they couldn't afford them. RBI had mentioned in its 2009-12 about - a domestic card initiative. Then took over from that, renamed it RuPay, and started working on a domestic payment card that would act as an alternative for MasterCard and Visa. It was launched in March 2012 for public usage. vision paper India Card NPCI Before Diving Deep Let's understand a few terms and the working of a traditional card payment system. When you swipe a card in the EPOS system, many things happen in the background, and many parties participate in the process. Involved Parties Three main parties that take part in the transaction are: The bank where the customer has their account. It issues debit cards to its users and holds their funds. Issuing Bank : The bank that funds at the end of the transaction. It is the bank where merchants have their accounts. Acquiring Bank : acquires The card network company acts as an essential intermediary between the whole transaction. The big bulls in the business are VISA, MasterCard and RuPay. Card Networks : Transaction Process The transaction starts when the customer enters the correct password. Then the card network takes charge of the process, which can be summarized in three steps: The card company checks the status of the customer's account. If it is not blocked, empty or suspicious, authorization is considered successful. Authorization : Funds are captured from the customer's bank account, and the merchant is notified through the EPOS system. The deal between customer and merchant is considered done here, but the acquiring bank still has not received funds. Capture : Settlement is the process of transferring money from an issuing bank account to an acquiring bank account. Settlement usually occurs once a business day. At the end of the process, the merchant finally receives the money. Settlement : Merchant Discount Rate However, there is a catch. The merchant does not receive the total amount sent by the customer. During the payment, involved parties take a few percentages. This fee is known as the or . MDR is to blame if you are refused card payments in small businesses. MDR is determined by the type of card used. A debit card is charged 0.9%, and a credit card is charged anywhere from 1% to 3% of the total amount. Merchant Discount Rate MDR If a payment gateway like Stripe, Bill desk, or Razorpay is involved, it charges a small percentage. This charge is called a , usually 0.5% of the overall amount. Payment Service Provider Fee Simply put, when a customer buys something for 10,000 and pays with a card, the merchant will only receive 9,650 rupees. Implementation of RuPay Indian Government and NPCI saw major gaps in this system. The system was not wholly flawed but had major drawbacks and areas of improvement. A large population of India works in an uncategorized sector. They are daily wagers, day to day workers and vendors. Most of them can't even afford a bank account for multiple reasons: minimum balance constraint, complexity in the process of withdrawals and credit, to name a few. As per a , a total of 557 million Indian population was unbanked in 2011. report Even though VISA and MasterCard have a duopoly in card payments, they were partnered with only 55 banks in India. Most of them are private or corporate banks. There was no support for other banks whatsoever. NPCI leveraged these disadvantages and started working precisely on them. NPCI, RBI and the Indian government started zero-balance bank accounts for people who can't afford to put much money in banks. Until 2015, the Indian unbanked population was halved to 223million compared to 2011. People from the bottom of the pyramid were getting into finance and banking and benefiting from it. RuPay's MDR Policy When RuPay was launched, it had a fixed MDR of 90 Indian paise regardless of the amount to be transacted. It was a huge factor considering how much Visa and MasterCard used to charge. It became possible for everyone to accept card-based payments. A few years back, in late 2019, the finance minister announced the Zero-MDR policy for RuPay. That means no extra charge will be deducted from the transaction. Since then, More merchants have been encouraged to use it along with the existing UPI system with a Zero-MDR policy. Contribution of Indian Government The Indian government itself promotes RuPay. The government successfully encouraged the Indian population to have an active bank account through RuPay and other government schemes. This laid the groundwork for Indian citizens' financial inclusion and created a pipeline for the government to efficiently distribute schemes and services to people who would otherwise have had such opportunities. In just a few years, NPCI announced four more cards under RuPay. It gives you instant access to your bank account anywhere in India. And it has personal accident death protection and disability coverage for the customer. PMJDY Debit Card : A customer can perform multiple withdrawals and credits to cost-effectively manage the working capital limit. Mudra Card : It offers a cash withdrawal facility, and its transaction cost is also meagre. It was exclusively designed for farmers having a particular account. PunGrain Card : Again focusing on the farmers, Kisan card is a need-based timely credit system. Kisan Card : What Lies Next After being the largest in Indian markets, RuPay is now expanding internationally. RuPay has entered global markets in 2014 itself. RuPay has issued over 64 million cards until 2019. These cards are accepted by 1.8 million ATMs and 41 million merchants in 190 countries around the globe. Singapore, UAE and Japan are a few countries showing massive interest in adapting RuPay. Despite all of this, RuPay has not shown its presence in a few other markets. Even though it has acquired the most significant share in the Indian debit card market, it still falls far behind in the credit card market. It holds only around 20% of the Indian market, and Visa and MasterCard dominate credit cards. Farewell I came across this topic while researching the digital payment revolution in India for last month and became immediately interested in learning more. Let me know if you found this interesting or have any suggestions or improvements. I am most active on , , and . I also maintain a where I talk about web development, programming and general experience. my article Twitter LinkedIn Showwcase personal blog Happy swiping! 📇

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