Cubyts is a collaborative design ops platform for scaling product and design teams.

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&quot;Founded in 2021 by Aurobinda Pradhan, an IIT-Bombay graduate, Raghu Sarangarajan, and Shashank Deshpande, Bengaluru-based SaaS startup Cubyts helps design managers codify design culture, improve cross-functional collaboration, and measure the impact of design on business.

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A Treatise on Painting by da Vinci Leonardo, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. here LINEAR PERSPECTIVE. Chap. CXII.— Of those who apply themselves to the Practice, without having learnt the Theory of the Art. Those who become enamoured of the practice of the art, without having previously applied to the diligent study of the scientific part of it, may be compared to mariners, who put to sea in a ship without rudder or compass, and therefore cannot be certain of arriving at the wished-for port. Practice must always be founded on good theory; to this, Perspective is the guide and entrance, without which nothing can be well done. Chap. CXIII.— Precepts in Painting. Perspective is to Painting what the bridle is to a horse, and the rudder to a ship. The size of a figure should denote the distance at which it is situated. If a figure be seen of the natural size, remember that it denotes its being near to the eye. Chap. CXIV.— Of the Boundaries of Objects called Outlines or Contours. The outlines or contours of bodies are so little perceivable, that at any small distance between that and the object, the eye will not be able to recognise the features of a friend or relation, if it were not for their clothes and general appearance. So that by the knowledge of the whole it comes to know the parts. Chap. CXV.— Of linear Perspective. Linear Perspective consists in giving, by established rules, the true dimensions of objects, according to their respective distances; so that the second object be less than the first, the third than the second, and by degrees at last they become invisible. I find by experience, that, if the second object be at the same distance from the first, as the first is from the eye, though they be of the same size, the second will appear half the size of the first; and, if the third be at the same distance behind the second, it will diminish two thirds; and so on, by degrees, they will, at equal distances, diminish in proportion; provided that the interval be not more than twenty cubits; at which distance it will lose two fourths of its size: at forty it will diminish three fourths; and at sixty it will lose five sixths, and so on progressively. But you must be distant from your picture twice the size of it; for, if you be only once the size, it will make a great difference in the measure from the first to the second. Chap. CXVI.— What Parts of Objects disappear first by Distance. Those parts which are of less magnitude will first vanish from the sight. This happens, because the shape of small objects, at an equal distance, comes to the eye under a more acute angle than the large ones, and the perception of them is less, in proportion as they are less in magnitude. It follows then, that if the large objects, by being removed to a great distance, and consequently coming to the eye by a small angle, are almost lost to the sight, the small objects will entirely disappear. Chap. CXVII.— Of remote Objects. The outlines of objects will be less seen, in proportion as they are more distant from the eye. Chap. CXVIII.— Of the Point of Sight. The point of sight must be on a level with the eyes of a common-sized man, and placed upon the horizon, which is the line formed by a flat country terminating with the sky. An exception must be made as to mountains, which are above that line. Chap. CXIX.— A Picture is to be viewed from one Point only. This will be proved by one single example. If you mean to represent a round ball very high up, on a flat and perpendicular wall, it will be necessary to make it oblong, like the shape of an egg, and to place yourself (that is, the eye, or point of view) so far back, as that its outline or circumference may appear round. Chap. CXX.— Of the Dimensions of the first Figure in an historical Painting. The first figure in your picture will be less than Nature, in proportion as it recedes from the front of the picture, or the bottom line; and by the same rule the others behind it will go on lessening in an equal degree. Chap. CXXI.— Of Objects that are lost to the Sight in Proportion to their Distance. The first things that disappear, by being removed to some distance, are the outlines or boundaries of objects. The second, as they remove farther, are the shadows which divide contiguous bodies. The third are the thickness of legs and feet; and so in succession the small parts are lost to the sight, till nothing remains but a confused mass, without any distinct parts. Chap. CXXII.— Errors not so easily seen in small Objects as in large ones. Supposing this small object to represent a man, or any other animal, although the parts, by being so much diminished or reduced, cannot be executed with the same exactness of proportion, nor finished with the same accuracy, as if on a larger scale, yet on that very account the faults will be less conspicuous. For example, if you look at a man at the distance of two hundred yards, and with all due attention mean to form a judgment, whether he be handsome or ugly, deformed or well made, you will find that, with all your endeavours, you can hardly venture to decide. The reason is, that the man diminishes so much by the distance, that it is impossible to distinguish the parts minutely. If you wish to know by demonstration the diminution of the above figure, hold your finger up before your eye at about nine inches distance, so that the top of your finger corresponds with the top of the head of the distant figure: you will perceive that your finger covers, not only its head, but part of its body; which is an evident proof of the apparent diminution of that object. Hence it often happens, that we are doubtful, and can scarcely, at some distance, distinguish the form of even a friend. Chap. CXXIII.— Historical Subjects one above another on the same Wall to be avoided. This custom, which has been generally adopted by painters, on the front and sides of chapels, is much to be condemned. They begin with an historical picture, its landscape and buildings, in one compartment. After which, they raise another compartment, and execute another history with other buildings upon another level; and from thence they proceed to a third and fourth, varying the point of sight, as if the beholder was going up steps, while, in fact, he must look at them all from below, which is very ill judged in those matters. We know that the point of sight is the eye of the spectator; and if you ask, how is a series of subjects, such as the life of a saint, to be represented, in different compartments on the same wall? I answer, that you are to place the principal event in the largest compartment, and make the point of sight as high as the eye of the spectator. Begin that subject with large figures; and as you go up, lessen the objects, as well the figures, as buildings, varying the plans according to the effect of perspective; but never varying the point of sight: and so complete the series of subjects, till you come to a certain height, where terrestrial objects can be seen no more, except the tops of trees, or clouds and birds; or if you introduce figures, they must be aerial, such as angels, or saints in glory, or the like, if they suit the purpose of your history. If not, do not undertake this kind of painting, for your work will be faulty, and justly reprehensible. Chap. CXXIV.— Why Objects in Painting can never detach, as natural Objects do. Painters often despair of being able to imitate Nature, from observing, that their pictures have not the same relief, nor the same life, as natural objects have in a looking-glass, though they both appear upon a plain surface. They say, they have colours which surpass in brightness the quality of the lights, and in darkness the quality of the shades of the objects seen in the looking-glass; but attribute this circumstance to their own ignorance, and not to the true cause, because they do not know it. It is impossible that objects in painting should appear with the same relief as those in the looking-glass, unless we look at them with only one eye. The reason is this. The two eyes A B looking at objects one behind another, as M and N, see them both; because M cannot entirely occupy the space of N, by reason that the base of the visual rays is so broad, that the second object is seen behind the first. But if one eye be shut, and you look with the other S, the body F will entirely cover the body R, because the visual rays beginning at one point, form a triangle, of which the body F is the base, and being prolonged, they form two diverging tangents at the two extremities of F, which cannot touch the body R behind it, therefore can never see it. Chap. CXXV.— How to give the proper Dimension to Objects in Painting. In order to give the appearance of the natural size, if the piece be small (as miniatures), the figures on the fore-ground are to be finished with as much precision as those of any large painting, because being small they are to be brought up close to the eye. But large paintings are seen at some distance; whence it happens, that though the figures in each are so different in size, in appearance they will be the same. This proceeds from the eye receiving those objects under the same angle; and it is proved thus. Let the large painting be B C, the eye A, and D E a pane of glass, through which are seen the figures situated at B C. I say that the eye being fixed, the figures in the copy of the paintings B C are to be smaller, in proportion as the glass D E is nearer the eye A, and are to be as precise and finished. But if you will execute the picture B C upon the glass D E, this ought to be less finished than the picture B C, and more so than the figure M N transferred upon the glass F G; because, supposing the figure P O to be as much finished as the natural one in B C, the perspective of O P would be false, since, though in regard to the diminution of the figure it would be right, B C being diminished in P O, the finishing would not agree with the distance, because in giving it the perfection of the natural B C, B C would appear as near as O P; but, if you search for the diminution of O P, O P will be found at the distance B C, and the diminution of the finishing as at F G. Chap. CXXVI.— How to draw accurately any particular Spot. Take a glass as large as your paper, fasten it well between your eye and the object you mean to draw, and fixing your head in a frame (in such a manner as not to be able to move it) at the distance of two feet from the glass; shut one eye, and draw with a pencil accurately upon the glass all that you see through it. After that, trace upon paper what you have drawn on the glass, which tracing you may paint at pleasure, observing the aerial perspective. Chap. CXXVII.— Disproportion to be avoided, even in the accessory Parts. A great fault is committed by many painters, which is highly to be blamed, that is, to represent the habitations of men, and other parts of their compositions, so low, that the doors do not reach as high as the knees of their inhabitants, though, according to their situation, they are nearer to the eye of the spectator, than the men who seem willing to enter them. I have seen some pictures with porticos, supported by columns loaded with figures; one grasping a column against which it leans, as if it were a walking-stick, and other similar errors, which are to be avoided with the greatest care. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. da Vinci Leonardo (2014). A Treatise on Painting. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/46915/pg46915-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

LINEAR PERSPECTIVE

In the Flutter ecosystem, you have several state management options to structure and scale your applications. As a Flutter newbie, you might only be familiar with and . Flutter Bloc stands out as a popular Flutter state management library. Learning Bloc offers many benefits. setState provider In this comprehensive article, we'll explore techniques for implementing seamless HTTP requests and effectively handling app state with Flutter Bloc. Additionally, we'll delve into unit tests with Bloc. Here, we will ensure that the business logic in Bloc classes works as expected. Let's dive in. Prerequisite To get the most out of this tutorial, you should have the following: A good grasp of Dart and Flutter. Understanding of how state management functions. Basic knowledge of unit testing in Flutter. BloC Description "BLoC" stands for "Business Logic Component." It's a state management pattern used to separate the business logic of an application from the user interface (UI) components, helping to maintain a clean and organized codebase. The Bloc pattern typically consists of the following components: : This is the central component. It contains the business logic and manages the state of the application. Bloc : These are triggers for the Bloc to react to. Events can be user actions (e.g., button taps) or external data updates. Events : States represent the various conditions that the application can be in. The Bloc emits states in response to events. The UI responds to changes in states by updating its presentation accordingly. States : The user interface layer (widgets) listens to the Bloc and reacts to state changes. When the Bloc emits a new state, the UI widgets update themselves to display the relevant information. UI Layer In summary, the Bloc pattern comprises of a bloc class that emits states in response to triggered events. The UI then observes the Bloc class and updates itself based on the emitted state. To illustrate this further, let's consider a basic counter app. In this app, you can increase or decrease the counter by one. We can categorize this as follows: Events: The increment function The decrement function States: Initial State: Counter is 0 Increment State: Counter + 1 Decrement State: Counter - 1 It's evident that when an event is triggered, the Bloc emits the corresponding state. CRUD API implementation using Bloc for state management We will be building a simple Flutter app, where we will implement CRUD APIs and manage the app state with Flutter Bloc and then run unit tests with Bloc test. At the end of this tutorial, you should be able to: Effectively handle API calls Use Bloc for state management Use Bloc test for testing Bloc classes This is the end result: This app is very similar to a project we worked on. Where we handled CRUD implementation with Dio, Clean Architecture, and Riverpod. If you’re curious, you can check it out here 👇🏽 https://hackernoon.com/optimizing-crud-operations-in-flutter-how-to-implement-http-requests-with-dio?embedable=true Add Required Dependencies Create a Flutter app, then go to your file and add the following dependencies for Bloc state management, testing, handling API requests and, also the dependency for our model classes. You can find these dependencies on Pubspec.yaml equatable Pub.dev dependencies:
 flutter:
 sdk: flutter
 dio: ^5.1.1
 equatable: ^2.0.5
 flutter_bloc: ^8.1.1


dev_dependencies:
 bloc_test: ^9.0.0
 flutter_test:
 sdk: flutter
 mocktail: ^1.0.0 We will use the Feature-Based folder structure for organizing the project. You can check out the for the complete code, to see the project structure. repo Set up service class For this tutorial, we will use the API. It is a hosted API we can use to simulate a real application scenario. With it, we will implement the different GET, POST, UPDATE & DELETE methods. To achieve this, we will use the Dio package to handle the API requests. REQ|RES First, we will define our endpoints: class Paths{
 static String baseUrl = "https://reqres.in/api";
 static String users = "/users/2";
} Next, we will create the singleton class and the different methods. For brevity, we will only explore the Get method in this article, but you can check out the rest in the . Dioclient repo /// Create a singleton class to contain all Dio methods and helper functions
class DioClient {
 DioClient._();

 static final instance = DioClient._();

 factory DioClient() {
 return instance;
 }

 final Dio _dio = Dio(
 BaseOptions(
 baseUrl: Paths.baseUrl,
 connectTimeout: const Duration(seconds: 60),
 receiveTimeout: const Duration(seconds: 60),
 responseType: ResponseType.json
 ),
 );

 ///Get Method
 Future<Map<String, dynamic>> get(
 String path, {
 Map<String, dynamic>? queryParameters,
 Options? options,
 CancelToken? cancelToken,
 ProgressCallback? onReceiveProgress
 }) async{
 try{
 final Response response = await _dio.get(
 path,
 queryParameters: queryParameters,
 options: options,
 cancelToken: cancelToken,
 onReceiveProgress: onReceiveProgress,
 );
 if(response.statusCode == 200){
 return response.data;
 }
 throw "something went wrong";
 } catch(e){
 rethrow;
 }
 }
} After this, we create the model class for the expected API responses. For this, we will be using equatable dependency. In Bloc, you will often deal with state changes. You will need to compare the current state with the new state to determine if there should be an update on the UI. Equatable will help make state comparisons much more efficient. import 'package:equatable/equatable.dart';

class User extends Equatable{
 final int? id;
 final String? email;
 final String? firstName;
 final String? lastName;
 final String? avatar;

 const User({this.id, this.email, this.firstName, this.lastName, this.avatar});

 factory User.fromJson(Map<String, dynamic> json) {
 return User(
 id : json['id'],
 email : json['email'],
 firstName : json['first_name'],
 lastName : json['last_name'],
 avatar : json['avatar'],
 );

 }

 Map<String, dynamic> toJson() {
 return {
 'id' : id,
 'email': email,
 'first_name': firstName,
 'last_name': lastName,
 'avatar': avatar,
 };
 }

 @override
 List<Object?> get props => [id, email, firstName, lastName, avatar];
} Finally, we create the service class. Here, we handle the API request: class CrudService{
 Future<User> getUser() async{
 try {
 final response = await DioClient.instance.get(Paths.users);
 final user = User.fromJson(response["data"]);
 return user;
 }on DioException catch(e){
 var error = DioErrors(e);
 throw error.errorMessage;
 }
 }
} Set up the Bloc class Now that we have set up the service class, we are already halfway done. 💪🏽 We will work on the Bloc class and connect them to the UI and service class. You can see that the Bloc will serve as the connecting link between the UI and the service, thus effectively separating the UI from the business logic. First, we will create the Bloc class. It is important to note that the Bloc class comes with two parts: The event class The state class For this GET request, this is what we want to achieve Event: Get a single user on entry to the page State Loading state: when we call the API Loaded state: when we get the user Error state: If there is an error Note: You can add the Bloc extension to your IDE so that you can easily create your Bloc classes with a few clicks Now, considering what we want to achieve, we will set up the state class. part of 'get_user_bloc.dart';

@immutable
sealed class GetUserState extends Equatable {
 const GetUserState();
}

///This is the loading state to show when an event starts
class GetUserLoading extends GetUserState{
 @override

 List<Object?> get props => [];
}

///This is the state to be shown when user data has been gotten
class GetUserLoaded extends GetUserState{
 const GetUserLoaded({this.user = const User()});

 final User user;
 @override
 List<Object?> get props => [user];

}

///This is the Error state
class GetUserError extends GetUserState {
 @override
 List<Object> get props => [];
} Considering this code snippet, here are a couple of things you should note Here, you can notice that the class extends to handle state comparison, just as we did for the model class. GetUserState Equatable In the state, we pass the user object because we know that when the Bloc emits the state, we want the user object to be returned and made accessible to the UI. Next, we will set up the Event class. GetUserLoaded GetUserLoaded part of 'get_user_bloc.dart';

abstract class GetUserEvent extends Equatable {
const GetUserEvent();
}

class GetUser extends GetUserEvent{
@override
List<Object?> get props => [];
} Here, we defined the event that will be triggered to call the API. Finally, we will set up the Bloc class, where the Business logic happens. The Bloc class comprises the state and event classes. import 'dart:async';
import 'package:flutter/cupertino.dart';
import 'package:flutter_bloc/flutter_bloc.dart';
import 'package:flutter_bloc_project/app/crud_repository/crud_repository.dart';
import 'package:equatable/equatable.dart';

part 'get_user_event.dart';
part 'get_user_state.dart';

class GetUserBloc extends Bloc<GetUserEvent, GetUserState> {
 GetUserBloc({required this.crudService}) : super(GetUserLoading()) {
 on<GetUser>(_onGetUser);
 }
 final CrudService crudService;

 Future<void> _onGetUser(GetUser event, Emitter<GetUserState> emit) async {
 emit(GetUserLoading());
 try {
 final result = await crudService.getUser();
 emit(GetUserLoaded(user: result));
 } catch (_) {
 emit(GetUserError());
 }
 }
} Let’s look into the Bloc class, note the following: We passed in the to make it required whenever you call the class. Remember, the is where we handled our API calls. We will need it in this Bloc class. CrudService GetUserBloc CrudService We set our initial state as . When we call the Bloc class, it emits this state first. GetUserLoading We also wrote a function for the named , so when we call the , the Bloc class emits the state while the function that is getting a single user is running. GetUserEvent GetUser _onGetUser GetUserLoading crudService.getUser() If there is any error, the Bloc emits the state. GetUserError Moving on, let’s integrate this into our UI. First of all, we have to make sure our Bloc class is accessible to the whole app. BlocProvider(
 create: (_) => GetUserBloc(crudService: crudService)..add(GetUser()),
 child: const AppView()),
 ), The serves as a dependency injection to ensure that a single instance of Bloc is accessible to your app. BlocProvider import 'package:flutter/material.dart';
import 'package:flutter_bloc/flutter_bloc.dart';
import 'package:flutter_bloc_project/crud/get_user/bloc/bloc.dart';
import 'view.dart';

class HomePage extends StatelessWidget {
 const HomePage({Key? key}) : super(key: key);

 @override
 Widget build(BuildContext context) {
 return Scaffold(
 drawer: const SideDrawer(),
 appBar: AppBar(
 title: const Text("Get User"),
 ),
 body: const SafeArea(child: UserProfile()),
 );
 }
}

class UserProfile extends StatelessWidget {
 const UserProfile({
 super.key,
 });

 @override
 Widget build(BuildContext context) {

 return BlocBuilder<GetUserBloc, GetUserState>(builder: (context, state) {
 switch (state) {
 case GetUserLoading():
 return const Center(child: CircularProgressIndicator());
 case GetUserLoaded():
 return Center(
 child: Column(
 children: [
 ClipRRect(
 borderRadius: BorderRadius.circular(50),
 child: Image.network("${state.user.avatar}")),
 Text('${state.user.firstName} ${state.user.lastName}',
 style: const TextStyle(fontSize: 16, color: Colors.white),)
 ],
 ),
 );
 case GetUserError():
 return const Text('Something went wrong!');
 }
 });
 }
} The code snippet above is that of our UI. Note the following: We used a to build the widget in response to new states. BlocBuilder Using a switch statement, we defined the result for every case. In the state, the Bloc class returns a user object. We integrated into the UI to show the items returned from the API GetUserLoaded Voila, now you have your app state changing based on the state and what event is triggered. For the rest of the implementation of the other CRUD methods, check it out on the . repo Unit Testing with Bloc_test Finally, we will write unit tests for our Bloc class. It is crucial to ensure that the business logic works as expected and that the state changes correctly in response to different events or user interactions. import 'package:flutter_bloc_project/crud/crud.dart';
import 'package:flutter_test/flutter_test.dart';
import 'package:mocktail/mocktail.dart';
import 'package:bloc_test/bloc_test.dart';

class MockCrudService extends Mock implements CrudService{}

void main(){
 group('get_user bloc', () {
 late MockCrudService mockCrudService;

 setUp(() {
 mockCrudService = MockCrudService();
 });

 test('initial state is get user loading', () {
 expect(GetUserBloc(crudService: mockCrudService).state,
 GetUserLoading()
 );
 });

 blocTest<GetUserBloc, GetUserState>(
 'emits [ GetUserLoading,GetUserError ] when loading fails',
 setUp: ()=> when(mockCrudService.getUser).thenThrow(Exception()),
 build: () => GetUserBloc(crudService: mockCrudService),
 act: (bloc) => bloc.add(GetUser()),
 expect: () => <GetUserState>[GetUserLoading(), GetUserError()],
 verify: (_)=> verify(mockCrudService.getUser).called(1),
 );

 blocTest<GetUserBloc, GetUserState>(
 'emits [ GetUserLoading,GetUserLoaded ] when loaded successfully',
 setUp: ()=> when(mockCrudService.getUser).thenAnswer((_)async => const User()),
 build: () => GetUserBloc(crudService: mockCrudService),
 act: (bloc) => bloc.add(GetUser()),
 expect: () => <GetUserState>[GetUserLoading(), const GetUserLoaded()],
 verify: (_)=> verify(mockCrudService.getUser).called(1),
 );
 });
} From this code snippet, these are a few things to note We first mocked the class and set it up for all the test cases on this file. It ensures that each test is run under the same conditions and does not influence subsequent tests. CrudService Then, we test to confirm that the initial state that the Bloc emits is the loading state. We now test to ensure that when Loading fails, the states emitted are . To achieve this, we did the following: [GetUserLoading, GetUserError ] We set up the function with the expected response. mockCrudService.getUser Using the build function, we pass the in the . mockCrudService GetUserBloc In the act method, we trigger the event. We add our expectation in the expect method, which in this case is the [GetUserLoading(),GetUserError() ] Then, we verify if the function was called. mockCrudService.getUser Using the same method, we test to ensure that when loaded successfully, the states emitted are . [GetUserLoading, GetUserloaded ] With this, we have effectively covered the unit tests for the . To check out the unit and widget test for the feature, you can check out the . You will also find the unit tests for Bloc that cover the other CRUD methods. GetUserBloc GetUser repo Conclusion Finally, we've covered state management with Flutter Bloc and running unit tests for Bloc classes in Flutter. Now that you've mastered the basics, you can employ Bloc for state management in your projects, ensuring the scalability and maintainability of your code. Bloc offers more features, including cubits, BlocListeners, MultiBlocProviders, and more. For additional information, please refer to the . Bloc documentation If you liked this tutorial and found it helpful, drop a reaction or a comment and follow me for more related articles. Also published . here

The Ultimate Guide to Flutter Bloc: State Management and Testing

Of the Greek philosophers in Alexandria; and how I had discourse with Philo the Alexandrine

John Grey Goes to London

Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea by Jules Verne, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book . THE POULPS here CHAPTER XVIII: THE POULPS For several days the kept off from the American coast. Evidently it did not wish to risk the tides of the Gulf of Mexico or of the sea of the Antilles. April 16th, we sighted Martinique and Guadaloupe from a distance of about thirty miles. I saw their tall peaks for an instant. The Canadian, who counted on carrying out his projects in the Gulf, by either landing or hailing one of the numerous boats that coast from one island to another, was quite disheartened. Flight would have been quite practicable, if Ned Land had been able to take possession of the boat without the Captain’s knowledge. But in the open sea it could not be thought of. The Canadian, Conseil, and I had a long conversation on this subject. For six months we had been prisoners on board the . We had travelled 17,000 leagues; and, as Ned Land said, there was no reason why it should come to an end. We could hope nothing from the Captain of the , but only from ourselves. Besides, for some time past he had become graver, more retired, less sociable. He seemed to shun me. I met him rarely. Formerly he was pleased to explain the submarine marvels to me; now he left me to my studies, and came no more to the saloon. What change had come over him? For what cause? For my part, I did not wish to bury with me my curious and novel studies. I had now the power to write the true book of the sea; and this book, sooner or later, I wished to see daylight. The land nearest us was the archipelago of the Bahamas. There rose high submarine cliffs covered with large weeds. It was about eleven o’clock when Ned Land drew my attention to a formidable pricking, like the sting of an ant, which was produced by means of large seaweeds. Nautilus Nautilus Nautilus “Well,” I said, “these are proper caverns for poulps, and I should not be astonished to see some of these monsters.” “What!” said Conseil; “cuttlefish, real cuttlefish of the cephalopod class?” “No,” I said, “poulps of huge dimensions.” “I will never believe that such animals exist,” said Ned. “Well,” said Conseil, with the most serious air in the world, “I remember perfectly to have seen a large vessel drawn under the waves by an octopus’s arm.” “You saw that?” said the Canadian. “Yes, Ned.” “With your own eyes?” “With my own eyes.” “Where, pray, might that be?” “At St. Malo,” answered Conseil. “In the port?” said Ned, ironically. “No; in a church,” replied Conseil. “In a church!” cried the Canadian. “Yes; friend Ned. In a picture representing the poulp in question.” “Good!” said Ned Land, bursting out laughing. “He is quite right,” I said. “I have heard of this picture; but the subject represented is taken from a legend, and you know what to think of legends in the matter of natural history. Besides, when it is a question of monsters, the imagination is apt to run wild. Not only is it supposed that these poulps can draw down vessels, but a certain Olaus Magnus speaks of an octopus a mile long that is more like an island than an animal. It is also said that the Bishop of Nidros was building an altar on an immense rock. Mass finished, the rock began to walk, and returned to the sea. The rock was a poulp. Another Bishop, Pontoppidan, speaks also of a poulp on which a regiment of cavalry could manœuvre. Lastly, the ancient naturalists speak of monsters whose mouths were like gulfs, and which were too large to pass through the Straits of Gibraltar.” “But how much is true of these stories?” asked Conseil. “Nothing, my friends; at least of that which passes the limit of truth to get to fable or legend. Nevertheless, there must be some ground for the imagination of the story-tellers. One cannot deny that poulps and cuttlefish exist of a large species, inferior, however, to the cetaceans. Aristotle has stated the dimensions of a cuttlefish as five cubits, or nine feet two inches. Our fishermen frequently see some that are more than four feet long. Some skeletons of poulps are preserved in the museums of Trieste and Montpelier, that measure two yards in length. Besides, according to the calculations of some naturalists, one of these animals only six feet long would have tentacles twenty-seven feet long. That would suffice to make a formidable monster.” “Do they fish for them in these days?” asked Ned. “If they do not fish for them, sailors see them at least. One of my friends, Captain Paul Bos of Havre, has often affirmed that he met one of these monsters of colossal dimensions in the Indian seas. But the most astonishing fact, and which does not permit of the denial of the existence of these gigantic animals, happened some years ago, in 1861.” “What is the fact?” asked Ned Land. “This is it. In 1861, to the north-east of Teneriffe, very nearly in the same latitude we are in now, the crew of the despatch-boat Alector perceived a monstrous cuttlefish swimming in the waters. Captain Bouguer went near to the animal, and attacked it with harpoon and guns, without much success, for balls and harpoons glided over the soft flesh. After several fruitless attempts the crew tried to pass a slip-knot round the body of the mollusc. The noose slipped as far as the tail fins and there stopped. They tried then to haul it on board, but its weight was so considerable that the tightness of the cord separated the tail from the body, and, deprived of this ornament, he disappeared under the water.” “Indeed! is that a fact?” “An indisputable fact, my good Ned. They proposed to name this poulp ‘Bouguer’s cuttlefish.’” “What length was it?” asked the Canadian. “Did it not measure about six yards?” said Conseil, who, posted at the window, was examining again the irregular windings of the cliff. “Precisely,” I replied. “Its head,” rejoined Conseil, “was it not crowned with eight tentacles, that beat the water like a nest of serpents?” “Precisely.” “Had not its eyes, placed at the back of its head, considerable development?” “Yes, Conseil.” “And was not its mouth like a parrot’s beak?” “Exactly, Conseil.” “Very well! no offence to master,” he replied, quietly; “if this is not Bouguer’s cuttlefish, it is, at least, one of its brothers.” I looked at Conseil. Ned Land hurried to the window. “What a horrible beast!” he cried. I looked in my turn, and could not repress a gesture of disgust. Before my eyes was a horrible monster worthy to figure in the legends of the marvellous. It was an immense cuttlefish, being eight yards long. It swam crossways in the direction of the with great speed, watching us with its enormous staring green eyes. Its eight arms, or rather feet, fixed to its head, that have given the name of cephalopod to these animals, were twice as long as its body, and were twisted like the furies’ hair. One could see the 250 air holes on the inner side of the tentacles. The monster’s mouth, a horned beak like a parrot’s, opened and shut vertically. Its tongue, a horned substance, furnished with several rows of pointed teeth, came out quivering from this veritable pair of shears. What a freak of nature, a bird’s beak on a mollusc! Its spindle-like body formed a fleshy mass that might weigh 4,000 to 5,000 lbs.; the, varying colour changing with great rapidity, according to the irritation of the animal, passed successively from livid grey to reddish brown. What irritated this mollusc? No doubt the presence of the , more formidable than itself, and on which its suckers or its jaws had no hold. Yet, what monsters these poulps are! what vitality the Creator has given them! what vigour in their movements! and they possess three hearts! Chance had brought us in presence of this cuttlefish, and I did not wish to lose the opportunity of carefully studying this specimen of cephalopods. I overcame the horror that inspired me, and, taking a pencil, began to draw it. Nautilus Nautilus “Perhaps this is the same which the Alector saw,” said Conseil. “No,” replied the Canadian; “for this is whole, and the other had lost its tail.” “That is no reason,” I replied. “The arms and tails of these animals are re-formed by renewal; and in seven years the tail of Bouguer’s cuttlefish has no doubt had time to grow.” By this time other poulps appeared at the port light. I counted seven. They formed a procession after the , and I heard their beaks gnashing against the iron hull. I continued my work. These monsters kept in the water with such precision that they seemed immovable. Suddenly the stopped. A shock made it tremble in every plate. Nautilus Nautilus “Have we struck anything?” I asked. “In any case,” replied the Canadian, “we shall be free, for we are floating.” The was floating, no doubt, but it did not move. A minute passed. Captain Nemo, followed by his lieutenant, entered the drawing-room. I had not seen him for some time. He seemed dull. Without noticing or speaking to us, he went to the panel, looked at the poulps, and said something to his lieutenant. The latter went out. Soon the panels were shut. The ceiling was lighted. I went towards the Captain. Nautilus “A curious collection of poulps?” I said. “Yes, indeed, Mr. Naturalist,” he replied; “and we are going to fight them, man to beast.” I looked at him. I thought I had not heard aright. “Man to beast?” I repeated. “Yes, sir. The screw is stopped. I think that the horny jaws of one of the cuttlefish is entangled in the blades. That is what prevents our moving.” “What are you going to do?” “Rise to the surface, and slaughter this vermin.” “A difficult enterprise.” “Yes, indeed. The electric bullets are powerless against the soft flesh, where they do not find resistance enough to go off. But we shall attack them with the hatchet.” “And the harpoon, sir,” said the Canadian, “if you do not refuse my help.” “I will accept it, Master Land.” “We will follow you,” I said, and, following Captain Nemo, we went towards the central staircase. There, about ten men with boarding-hatchets were ready for the attack. Conseil and I took two hatchets; Ned Land seized a harpoon. The had then risen to the surface. One of the sailors, posted on the top ladderstep, unscrewed the bolts of the panels. But hardly were the screws loosed, when the panel rose with great violence, evidently drawn by the suckers of a poulp’s arm. Immediately one of these arms slid like a serpent down the opening and twenty others were above. With one blow of the axe, Captain Nemo cut this formidable tentacle, that slid wriggling down the ladder. Just as we were pressing one on the other to reach the platform, two other arms, lashing the air, came down on the seaman placed before Captain Nemo, and lifted him up with irresistible power. Captain Nemo uttered a cry, and rushed out. We hurried after him. Nautilus What a scene! The unhappy man, seized by the tentacle and fixed to the suckers, was balanced in the air at the caprice of this enormous trunk. He rattled in his throat, he was stifled, he cried, “Help! help!” These words, spoken in French, startled me! I had a fellow-countryman on board, perhaps several! That heart-rending cry! I shall hear it all my life. The unfortunate man was lost. Who could rescue him from that powerful pressure? However, Captain Nemo had rushed to the poulp, and with one blow of the axe had cut through one arm. His lieutenant struggled furiously against other monsters that crept on the flanks of the . The crew fought with their axes. The Canadian, Conseil, and I buried our weapons in the fleshy masses; a strong smell of musk penetrated the atmosphere. It was horrible! Nautilus For one instant, I thought the unhappy man, entangled with the poulp, would be torn from its powerful suction. Seven of the eight arms had been cut off. One only wriggled in the air, brandishing the victim like a feather. But just as Captain Nemo and his lieutenant threw themselves on it, the animal ejected a stream of black liquid. We were blinded with it. When the cloud dispersed, the cuttlefish had disappeared, and my unfortunate countryman with it. Ten or twelve poulps now invaded the platform and sides of the . We rolled pell-mell into the midst of this nest of serpents, that wriggled on the platform in the waves of blood and ink. It seemed as though these slimy tentacles sprang up like the hydra’s heads. Ned Land’s harpoon, at each stroke, was plunged into the staring eyes of the cuttle fish. But my bold companion was suddenly overturned by the tentacles of a monster he had not been able to avoid. Nautilus Ah! how my heart beat with emotion and horror! The formidable beak of a cuttlefish was open over Ned Land. The unhappy man would be cut in two. I rushed to his succour. But Captain Nemo was before me; his axe disappeared between the two enormous jaws, and, miraculously saved, the Canadian, rising, plunged his harpoon deep into the triple heart of the poulp. “I owed myself this revenge!” said the Captain to the Canadian. Ned bowed without replying. The combat had lasted a quarter of an hour. The monsters, vanquished and mutilated, left us at last, and disappeared under the waves. Captain Nemo, covered with blood, nearly exhausted, gazed upon the sea that had swallowed up one of his companions, and great tears gathered in his eyes. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Jules Verne (1994). Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022 https://www.gutenberg.org/files/164/164-h/164-h.htm This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at , located at . www.gutenberg.org https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

THE POULPS

Physical Geography

On the Proportions and on the Movements of the Human Figure

Our Humble Helpers: Familiar Talks on the Domestic Animals by Jean-Henri Fabre, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here . THE WILD GOOSE CHAPTER XIII. THE WILD GOOSE “When we say of some one, ‘He is as silly as a goose,’ we think we have applied the strongest term indicative of foolishness that our language furnishes. Is the goose then so silly? That is what I am about to discuss with you, my friends. Goose “I agree at the outset that its appearance is not such as to give a high idea of its intellectual faculties. Its head is too small for its body, its diminutive and expressionless eyes, its enormous beak hiding its whole face, its waddling walk made still more awkward by the fatty protuberance that hangs down under its stomach and strikes its feet, its neck sometimes awkwardly outstretched, sometimes sharply bent as if broken, its cry surpassing in hoarseness the note of the hoarsest clarion, its angry or frightened whistle resembling the hiss of the snake when surprised—all that, I hasten to acknowledge, does not prepossess one in favor of the bird. But how often, under a rude exterior, is hidden a refined nature! Let us not judge the goose by its appearance, but let us go deeper before forming a fixed opinion.” “I see what you are up to, Uncle,” interrupted Jules; “you are taking up your favorite refrain, the praise of the slandered. A while ago you extolled the two ugliest of creatures, the bat and the toad; now you are going to undertake the defense of the goose and clear it of the slander it suffers in being called silly.” “Why should I deny it, my child? Yes, my favorite occupation is pleading the cause of the weak, the miserable, the traduced, the outlawed. The strong and the powerful are not wanting in admirers, so I can pass them over very quickly; but I should reproach myself all my life were I to forget the forsaken and not bring to light their good qualities, unrecognized and, indeed, too often shamefully misrepresented as they are. As to its treatment, the goose needs no pleading of mine: it is too valuable to us not to be taken care of as it deserves. The only reproach I have to bring has to do with the reputation for stupidity it has been made to bear. I am well aware that the goose, as a sensible creature, is superbly indifferent to this calumny, and I offer it my congratulations; but, after all, this false repute is an instance of error, and wherever I find error I give it battle. “First, I will show you the goose as an adept in geography. In spite of our books, maps, and atlases, how the reputedly silly bird would surpass all of us and many others! Know that in its wild state [ ]the goose is an impassioned traveler, even more so than its companion, the duck. Influenced by considerations of convenience, the latter often nests in our latitudes; the goose is more given to mistrust and passes us by. For the laying of its eggs it must seek regions as near the Pole as possible, regions of never-melting ice. The desolate wastes of Greenland and Spitzbergen, and, still farther north, the islands lost in the fogs of the polar ocean, are the regions whither they feel bound to return every summer. The point of departure, where the bird has passed the winter in the midst of plenty when its native country was plunged in continual night and buried under fathomless depths of snow and ice—the point of departure is far south, in central Africa perhaps, so that the distance to be covered measures almost a quarter-circumference of the earth. Now, my friends, let us put ourselves in the place of the wild goose just about to take its flight for the long expedition, and see which of the two parties will be the more perplexed, the more stupid. I leave out of the account means of transportation: however good a mount we might have, we should cut a pitiable figure beside the goose, which with powerful wing soars above the clouds and conquers space. I pass by the means of transportation and ask only what direction is to be taken. I appeal to your knowledge of geography.” 118 “Since it is only necessary to go north,” answered Jules, “I should first make sure of the points of the compass. I should turn toward the sun, and if it is [ ]rising, the north would be on the left; if setting, the north would be on the right. This direction fixed, I should set out accordingly.” 119 “In the supposed case that method is inapplicable. As an experienced traveler husbanding its strength and hence making the most of the cooler hours, the goose travels only at night.” “Then I would turn toward the constellation of the Bear, toward the polar star. The north is in that direction.” “Very good: you would find the north in that way if the night were clear; but if the night were dark and you could not see the stars, what would you do?” “I should use a compass, the needle of which always points nearly northward.” “But if you did not have that precious instrument, the traveler’s guide in the midst of the waste solitudes of land and sea—if you had no compass, how would you find your way, my friend?” “In that case, Uncle, I should be very much perplexed. Perplexed is not the word; on the contrary, I should see very clearly that there was no possibility of my finding my way. I should not budge from the spot, for I might as well try to guide myself blindfolded.” “Here, my dear child, the bird reputed to be so stupid, so foolish, towers above us all by a thousand cubits. Without consulting the rising or setting sun, paying no heed to the constellations, for which it has no use, availing itself of no compass but its [ ]instinct, which says, ‘This is the way’—in darkness as well as in light, the goose plunges into space and flies northward. 120 “But that is only the beginning of the problem. A simple northern direction leads, according to the point of departure, to very different regions, sometimes to Siberia, sometimes to Spitzbergen and Lapland, sometimes to the northern islands of Iceland, Greenland, and what others shall I say? But no such vague destination will do for the goose. The bird must return to its native country, of which it retains an ineffaceable remembrance, just as a man, through all the shifts and changes of his stirring life, preserves the cherished memory of his own village. The goose, then, must again find the sea whose murmur it listened to in youth. In that sea is a certain islet, on that islet a certain moor, and on that moor a certain hidden retreat covered with rushes and sheltered from the wind by a rock. That is its birthplace; it must find its way. “Propose such an undertaking to a navigator provided with first-rate charts and versed in all the special lore of his calling, and he would finally succeed, it is true, but would encounter difficulties due to the inhospitable seas of those parts. Propose it to one of us, who have none of the requisite nautical knowledge, and it would put our geography to the test without any chance of ultimate success. But this task which man, with all his reasoning powers, would in the great majority of instances be incapable of performing, the goose accomplishes without the [ ]slightest hesitation. As though the desired spot were right before its eyes, it goes straight forward. The featureless expanse of ocean and the confusing details of the landscape, the halts on the margins of lakes, the damp and obscurity of clouds that have to be traversed, the emotions of terror excited when the ambushed hunter discharges his leaden hail—none of these things diverts it from its course. If detours must be made in order to avoid danger or find food, it makes them, however long they may be, and then resumes the right direction without a moment’s hesitation. It calculates its speed and regulates its halts so as to arrive neither too early nor too late; for it knows perfectly the order of the seasons, when the snow melts and when the grass turns green. At last, on a fine day when the first little flowers are just peeping through their snowy shrouds, it reaches its ocean inlet, its little island, its native heath, its cherished nesting-place. 121 “I have finished. Now, my friends, which one of you would like to engage in a geography match—not with a veteran goose experienced in such voyages; you would be too hopelessly outclassed—but with the youngest gosling, the merest novice of them all?” “On that subject,” Jules made answer, “I admit that the youngest gosling knows more than I.” “And than I,” chimed in Louis, and Emile added: “If the goose knew that I can’t even find my bearings yet on the map, how it would make fun of poor Emile! You will tell us so much about its cleverness, [ ]Uncle, that after this I shan’t be able to meet a goose without blushing.” 122 “It is very praiseworthy to blush at one’s ignorance,” his uncle assured him, “especially on a subject as necessary as geography; for it is a sign that in future one will do one’s best; but none may expect to rival the goose. We acquire our knowledge by reflection, study, observation, experience; an animal does not acquire knowledge, it possesses knowledge from its birth. Without ever having learned it, without ever having seen it done, it does everything belonging to its manner of living, and does it admirably well. A feeling not reasoned, a secret impulse proper to its nature, guides it in its acts; it is instinct, the marvels of which I have often related to you. If, to accomplish its astonishing journeys, the goose had to learn geography as we do, it would never see its beloved native land again; but it has as guide the infallible inspiration of instinct, and with this inner compass it wings its unerring way straight toward its natal islet, however hidden by polar fogs that islet may be. “Its manner of traveling is not less remarkable. I have already told you something about the duck; I come back to the subject in order to emphasize the high degree of mechanical science possessed by the goose. A bird on the wing is held up by the air which its wings strike; it is also impeded in its progress by the air, the resistance of which it must conquer. To overcome this obstacle with the least [ ]possible fatigue what does the bird do, especially the crane, heron, stork, and other wading birds encumbered with long legs and a long neck? They bring the neck back on the breast, point their sharp beak forward, and, holding their outstretched legs close together, trail them behind. With form thus trimmed to extreme slimness, and with beak acting as the point of a spear-head, they cleave the air as a ship plows the wave with its sharp prow. No bird is wanting in this elementary principle of mechanics: to gather the members together and taper the body in the direction of motion, so as to encounter the least resistance. By undertaking these very long flights in large flocks the duck and the goose improve upon this general method. 123 “Before going further let us draw a comparison. I will suppose that you are a company of playmates running across lots, and you come to a tract all covered with thick brushwood that has to be parted with feet and hands before you can get through. If each one goes about it in his own way, one here and another there just as it happens, is it not true that the sum total of fatigue for the whole company will be the greatest possible, since each one will have spent his strength in opening a way for himself through the thicket? But now let us suppose, on the other hand, that one of you, the most vigorous of the company, walks at the head, parting the underbrush, and that the others follow him, step by step, taking advantage of the path opened by the [ ]leader of the file. Is it not true that under these conditions the sum total of fatigue will be the least possible?” 124 “All that is obvious,” Emile replied. “They could even, if it were a long way through the brushwood, take turns in going ahead, and then no one would be really tired out.” “This device of Emile’s has, as you already know, been put in practice from time immemorial by ducks on their long flights. Nor is the goose less happily inspired. If the flock is a small one, the birds composing it range themselves in a continuous single file, each following bird touching with its beak the tail of the preceding one, in order that the way opened through the air may not have time to close again. If the flock is numerous, two files of equal length are formed, and they join each other at an acute angle, advancing point first. This angular arrangement, which we find imitated in the ship’s prow, in the farmer’s plowshare, in the thin edge of a wedge, and in any number of utensils fashioned for penetrating a dense mass by overcoming resistance, is the one best suited for cleaving the air with the least possible fatigue. If, to arrange its flying squadron, the goose had taken counsel of the most consummate science of our engineers, it could not have done better. But the goose has no need of others; advised by its instinct, it knew long before us, who call it stupid, one of the great secrets of mechanics, the principle of the wedge. “Moreover, to divide among all the members of [ ]the flock the excess of fatigue felt by the leader of the file in being the first to cleave with a stroke of his wing the resisting atmosphere, each one in its turn occupies the post of honor, the forward end of the single file, or the apex of the two joining files. It is a repetition of Emile’s expedient for penetrating a considerable extent of brushwood. After its turn of service at the front the leading goose retires for rest to the rear of one or other of the branches of the angle, while a new leader takes its place. By this means of equitable rotation excessive fatigue on the part of any one of the migrating flock is avoided, and no stragglers are left behind.” 125 “And no goose has to be urged to take what you call the post of honor, the arduous post at the front?” queried Emile. “None has to be urged. It is their duty, and they all fulfil it with a zeal that in many instances man might take as a model. To the recusant slacker the smallest gosling would give a lesson in what is owing to the common welfare. As soon as the leader feels its strength weakening, the next one in order takes its place without having to be told.” “Decidedly,” interposed Jules, “those geese, with their cleverness in geography and their skill in the art of flying in flocks and in devising means for mutual assistance, are not so silly as they are said to be.” “The flight of a flock of geese is generally very high; they do not come near the ground except in foggy weather. If on such an occasion some farm [ ]chances to be near, it occasionally happens that resounding clarion calls answer each other from sky to earth and earth to sky. That is the interchange of greetings between wild and tame geese. The wild ones invite the captives to come and join them in their pilgrimage to the promised land of the North. The proposal puts the poultry-yard all in a turmoil, so compelling is the call of instinct. The farm geese become excited, scream, beat their sides with their large wings; but the plumpness of captivity prevents their flight. One less impeded takes wing, rises in the air, and is gone.” 126 “To Spitzbergen?” asked Emile. “Yes, to Spitzbergen, if strength does not fail it, but it is very doubtful whether it will be able to follow its wild companions to the end. “The goose feeds chiefly on herbage. With its wide beak furnished at the edges with little scales resembling sharp teeth, it browses the turf very much as does the sheep. A field of green wheat particularly delights it. If a rather large flock alights there the harvest is seriously injured. During the devastation sentries keep a look-out, some here, others there, motionless, neck outstretched, eye and ear on the alert. Let danger approach, and immediately the trumpet sounds. At the warning the flock ceases grazing, runs with wings open to get a start, then takes flight and mounts obliquely to heights above the reach of a shot. The same precautions are taken in the hours of repose; furthermore, actuated by an excess of prudence, they refuse to trust [ ]entirely to the sentinels, but each sleeps with one eye open, as we say. Thus are the ruses of the hunter nearly always baffled when he tries to get near them. 127 “I will stop here for to-day. I hope that, without going into other details that would carry us too far, I have reinstated the slandered bird in your esteem. The goose is not silly; on the contrary, it possesses to a high degree the wiles, the talents, in fact everything necessary for the admirable fulfilment of its mission as a goose.” About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. Jean-Henri Fabre (2022). Our Humble Helpers: Familiar Talks on the Domestic Animals. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/67073/pg67073-images.html This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html .

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