Azra AI is a healthtech firm that leverages advanced AI and machine learning to automate oncology workflows. Its proven SaaS Clinical Intelligence solution is used by more than 200 hospitals and cancer centers across the country to identify positive cancer diagnoses and incidental findings in real-time, classify by primary site, and route those patients to cancer navigators and other staff to immediately start the cancer care journey. The results include faster time to treatment, increased navigator time with patients, and better oncology patient retention. Additionally, the solution delivers dramatic operational and financial gains through intelligent automation.

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This rundown has been compiled using data from several reports and databases, including Pitchbook, Galaxy Research, CryptoRank, InnMind, and Cointelegraph. Major Highlights Funding Continues to Decline: The Crypto VC market is still facing headwinds as investors are cautious, with Q2 2023 attracting $2.32 billion in funding, slightly lower than the previous quarter. Mixed Valuations: The number of completed crypto VC deals increased in Q2, but pre-money valuations continued to decline, reaching $17.93 million, while the median crypto VC deal stood at $3 million in Q2 2023. Web3 Dominance: Web3 Gaming, NFTs, and the Metaverse are high-interest segments, this nascent crypto niche recorded the highest number of deals in Q2 2023. Crypto VC Landscape: Despite headwinds in 2023, the US remains the leading destination for venture capital funds in the digital asset industry, with over $2 billion invested this year. Crypto Winter Continues: 46% of respondents in a survey carried out by InnMind believe that the crypto winter will persist throughout 2023, with market recovery expected in 2024. Crypto VC Funding Overview The has continued to face headwinds this year, with more investors shying away from the digital asset industry. According to the latest data from , Q2 2023 attracted $2.32 billion in funding, down from the previous quarter, which was slightly higher at $2.6 billion. crypto VC landscape Pitchbook Valuations and Number of Deals Show Mixed Trends The number of completed crypto VC deals increased from 439 in Q1 to 456 in Q2. This is the first time the figure has gone up since the market peaked in Q1 2022 when over 1,200 deals were completed during that quarter. However, on the other hand, the pre-money valuation for deals in the digital asset industry has continued on a downtrend, reaching $17.93 million, while the median crypto VC deal stood at $3 million in Q2 2023. Top 5 Crypto VCs by Capital Invested in Q1 2023 According to a Q1 2023 from the InnMind Web3 startups and VC platform, the same players from last year are still dominating the action. Here are some of the VCs that have invested the most funds into crypto startups this year: report - Invested $136.2 million in Q1 funding 10 startups, including EigenLayer, Term Labs, Avalon Corp, Chaos Labs, MSafe, Azra Games, Alongside, Architect, Obol Labs, and Alkimiya. Coinbase Ventures - Invested $131.5 million in Q1, some of the projects funded include Voldex, Alongside, Towns, Believer, Capsule, and CCP Games. a16z - Invested $107.8 million in Q1 to fund 9 projects: Mask, YGG, Inverse Finance, Beldex, Conflux, Tonstarter, Radix, So-Col, and Alchemy Pay. DWF Labs - Invested $75 million in Q1 into 6 projects namely Alkimiya, Caldera, Monad, Kaito, OP3N, and Econia Labs. DragonFly Capital - Invested $53.5 million in Q1 funding 10 projects: MSafe, Quasar, Open Forest Protocol, Quantum Temple, Sleepagotchi, Cedro Finance, OrbLabs, Monad, 3RM and Strider.’ Shima Capital Crypto VC Fundraising is at its lowest since Q3 2020 Evidently, crypto VCs have not invested a lot of funds into the market this year. This is due to a sharp decline in the amount of newly injected capital and new funds. Data from Galaxy Asset Management reveals that the number of new funds in Q2 2023 was only 10, with the total amount raised falling below $1 billion. Source: Galaxy Asset Management As expected, the decline in fundraising amounts has affected the average fund size, which currently stands at $236 million compared to $343 million in 2022. Meanwhile, the median fund size has halved from $100 million to $50 million. High Ticket Crypto VC Funding Rounds in 2023 While 2023 might have started on a low note for both the global and crypto VC industry, there have been several notable raises this year: Blockstream, a company specializing in digital asset infrastructure, $125 million in January through a convertible note and secured a loan to fund its mining co-location services. secured In March, Ledger, the prominent crypto hardware wallet provider, successfully $109 million in a series C funding round extension. attracted Taurus, a digital asset infrastructure provider serving financial institutions in Europe, $65 million in a Series B capital raise with Credit Suisse leading the funding round. raised Scroll, a Layer 2 Ethereum network working on a zero-knowledge Ethereum Virtual Machine (zkEVM) scaling solution, a $50.0 million late-stage VC round in March from prominent investors, including Polychain Capital and Sequoia China. secured Funding Rounds by Investor and Category As for the number of funding rounds, data from CryptoRank shows that Polygon Fund has participated in 29 funding rounds this year, closely followed by DWF Labs and Coinbase Ventures, both at 28 rounds each. It is also noteworthy that most of the funds were allocated toward blockchain service and blockchain infrastructure projects. Seed Stage Rounds Accounted for the Lion’s Share Seed-stage funding rounds have attracted the most capital this year, accounting for 33.82% while pre-seed and series A raises stood at 8.97% and 7.5% respectively. Crypto VC Investments by Segment & Region , NFTs, and the are still an area of high interest, this segment of the crypto market recorded the highest number of deals in Q2 2023 followed closely by Lending, Investing, Exchange, and Trading companies. Web3 Gaming Metaverse However, when it comes to the amount of capital invested, it was vice versa: trading and investing companies carried the day, while Web3 infrastructures came in second. The US Leads in Crypto VC Raises and Funding Rounds Despite regulatory uncertainty, the US remains the leading destination for venture capital funds targeting the digital asset industry. This year alone, over $2.1 billion has been invested in crypto startups based in the US. Undisclosed locations follow at $1.2 billion, and in third place is the United Kingdom with $602.93 million. InnMind Survey: Web3 Most Potential Niche and Crypto Winter to End in 2024 A recent survey conducted by InnMind, involving 147 professional VCs in the digital asset industry, reveals that the majority of participants believe Web3 infrastructure startups hold the most upside potential. More interestingly, 46% of the respondents believe that the crypto winter or the period of 'nothingness' will continue for the rest of 2023, and it is unlikely that we will see the market bouncing back until next year. Closing Thoughts The crypto bear market has undoubtedly impacted the availability of venture capital over the past year. However, it is essential to highlight that there remains notable activity in value-based projects focusing on Web3, especially in the metaverse and NFT segments. As we look ahead, the outlook on whether substantial capital will flow into the digital asset industry this year remains uncertain. That said, there is a higher likelihood that many investors will remain cautious and stay on the sidelines for the rest of 2023. Also published here.

Crypto VC Landscape in 2023: Adapting Strategies Amidst the Winter

The Country of the Blind, And Other Stories, by H. G. Wells, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here. A VISION OF JUDGMENT A VISION OF JUDGMENT I. — Bru-a-a-a. I listened, not understanding. Wa-ra-ra-ra. "Good Lord!" said I, still only half awake. "What an infernal shindy!" Ra-ra-ra-ra-ra-ra-ra-ra-ra Ta-ra-rra-ra. "It's enough," said I, "to wake——" and stopped short. Where was I. — Ta-rra-rara—louder and louder. "It's either some new invention——" Toora-toora-toora! Deafening! "No," said I, speaking loud in order to hear myself. "That's the Last Trump." Tooo-rraa! II. — The last note jerked me out of my grave like a hooked minnow. I saw my monument (rather a mean little affair, and I wished I knew who'd done it), and the old elm tree and the sea view vanished like a puff of steam, and then all about me—a multitude no man could number, nations, tongues, kingdoms, peoples—children of all the ages, in an amphitheatral space as vast as the sky. And over against us, seated on a throne of dazzling white cloud, the Lord God and all the host of his angels. I recognised Azrael by his darkness and Michael by his sword, and the great angel who had blown the trumpet stood with the trumpet still half raised. III. — "Prompt," said the little man beside me. "Very prompt. Do you see the angel with the book?" He was ducking and craning his head about to see over and under and between the souls that crowded round us. "Everybody's here," he said. "Everybody. And now we shall know— "There's Darwin," he said, going off at a tangent. "He'll catch it! And there—you see?—that tall, important-looking man trying to catch the eye of the Lord God, that's the Duke. But there's a lot of people one doesn't know. "Oh! there's Priggles, the publisher. I have always wondered about printers' overs. Priggles was a clever man ... But we shall know now—even about him. "I shall hear all that. I shall get most of the fun before ... My letter's S." He drew the air in between his teeth. "Historical characters, too. See? That's Henry the Eighth. There'll be a good bit of evidence. Oh, damn! He's Tudor." He lowered his voice. "Notice this chap, just in front of us, all covered with hair. Paleolithic, you know. And there again—" But I did not heed him, because I was looking at the Lord God. IV. — "Is this all?" asked the Lord God. The angel at the book—it was one of countless volumes, like the British Museum Reading-room Catalogue, glanced at us and seemed to count us in the instant. "That's all," he said, and added: "It was, O God, a very little planet." The eyes of God surveyed us. "Let us begin," said the Lord God. V. — The angel opened the book and read a name. It was a name full of A's, and the echoes of it came back out of the uttermost parts of space. I did not catch it clearly, because the little man beside me said, in a sharp jerk, "What's that?" It sounded like "Ahab" to me; but it could not have been the Ahab of Scripture. Instantly a small black figure was lifted up to a puffy cloud at the very feet of God. It was a stiff little figure, dressed in rich outlandish robes and crowned, and it folded its arms and scowled. "Well?" said God, looking down at him. We were privileged to hear the reply, and indeed the acoustic properties of the place were marvellous. "I plead guilty," said the little figure. "Tell them what you have done," said the Lord God. "I was a king," said the little figure, "a great king, and I was lustful and proud and cruel. I made wars, I devastated countries, I built palaces, and the mortar was the blood of men. Hear, O God, the witnesses against me, calling to you for vengeance. Hundreds and thousands of witnesses." He waved his hands towards us. "And worse! I took a prophet—one of your prophets——" "One of my prophets," said the Lord God. "And because he would not bow to me, I tortured him for four days and nights, and in the end he died. I did more, O God, I blasphemed. I robbed you of your honours——" "Robbed me of my honours," said the Lord God. "I caused myself to be worshipped in your stead. No evil was there but I practised it; no cruelty wherewith I did not stain my soul. And at last you smote me, O God!" God raised his eyebrows slightly. "And I was slain in battle. And so I stand before you, meet for your nethermost Hell! Out of your greatness daring no lies, daring no pleas, but telling the truth of my iniquities before all mankind." He ceased. His face I saw distinctly, and it seemed to me white and terrible and proud and strangely noble. I thought of Milton's Satan. "Most of that is from the Obelisk," said the Recording Angel, finger on page. "It is," said the Tyrannous Man, with a faint touch of surprise. Then suddenly God bent forward and took this man in his hand, and held him up on his palm as if to see him better. He was just a little dark stroke in the middle of God's palm. "Did he do all this?" said the Lord God. The Recording Angel flattened his book with his hand. "In a way," said the Recording Angel, carelessly. Now when I looked again at the little man his face had changed in a very curious manner. He was looking at the Recording Angel with a strange apprehension in his eyes, and one hand fluttered to his mouth. Just the movement of a muscle or so, and all that dignity of defiance was gone. "Read," said the Lord God. And the angel read, explaining very carefully and fully all the wickedness of the Wicked Man. It was quite an intellectual treat.—A little "daring" in places, I thought, but of course Heaven has its privileges... VI. — Everybody was laughing. Even the prophet of the Lord whom the Wicked Man had tortured had a smile on his face. The Wicked Man was really such a preposterous little fellow. "And then," read the Recording Angel, with a smile that set us all agog, "one day, when he was a little irascible from over-eating, he—" "Oh, not that," cried the Wicked Man, "nobody knew of that. "It didn't happen," screamed the Wicked Man. "I was bad—I was really bad. Frequently bad, but there was nothing so silly—so absolutely silly—" The angel went on reading. "O God!" cried the Wicked Man. "Don't let them know that! I'll repent! I'll apologise..." The Wicked Man on God's hand began to dance and weep. Suddenly shame overcame him. He made a wild rush to jump off the ball of God's little finger, but God stopped him by a dexterous turn of the wrist. Then he made a rush for the gap between hand and thumb, but the thumb closed. And all the while the angel went on reading—reading. The Wicked Man rushed to and fro across God's palm, and then suddenly turned about and fled up the sleeve of God. I expected God would turn him out, but the mercy of God is infinite. The Recording Angel paused. "Eh?" said the Recording Angel. "Next," said God, and before the Recording Angel could call the name a hairy creature in filthy rags stood upon God's palm. VII. — "Has God got Hell up his sleeve then?" said the little man beside me. "Is there a Hell?" I asked. "If you notice," he said—he peered between the feet of the great angels— "there's no particular indication of a Celestial City." "'Ssh!" said a little woman near us, scowling. "Hear this blessed Saint!" VIII. — "He was Lord of the Earth, but I was the prophet of the God of Heaven," cried the Saint, "and all the people marvelled at the sign. For I, O God, knew of the glories of thy Paradise. No pain, no hardship, gashing with knives, splinters thrust under my nails, strips of flesh flayed off, all for the glory and honour of God." God smiled. "And at last I went, I in my rags and sores, smelling of my holy discomforts——" Gabriel laughed abruptly. "And lay outside his gates, as a sign, as a wonder——" "As a perfect nuisance," said the Recording Angel, and began to read, heedless of the fact that the saint was still speaking of the gloriously unpleasant things he had done that Paradise might be his. And behold, in that book the record of the Saint also was a revelation, a marvel. It seemed not ten seconds before the Saint also was rushing to and fro over the great palm of God. Not ten seconds! And at last he also shrieked beneath that pitiless and cynical exposition, and fled also, even as the Wicked Man had fled, into the shadow of the sleeve. And it was permitted us to see into the shadow of the sleeve. And the two sat side by side, stark of all delusions, in the shadow of the robe of God's charity, like brothers. And thither also I fled in my turn. IX. — "And now," said God, as he shook us out of his sleeve upon the planet he had given us to live upon, the planet that whirled about green Sirius for a sun, "now that you understand me and each other a little better,...try again." Then he and his great angels turned themselves about and suddenly had vanished... The Throne had vanished. All about me was a beautiful land, more beautiful than any I had ever seen before—waste, austere, and wonderful; and all about me were the enlightened souls of men in new clean bodies... About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. H. G. Wells (2004). The Country of the Blind, And Other Stories. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/11870/11870-h/11870-h.htm This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at . https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html

A VISION OF JUDGMENT

The Professor Layton franchise is one of the most underrated puzzle game series of all time. The series consists of seven games, a tv show, a film and one spin-off game. Professor Layton is a puzzle adventure game series first released on the Nintendo DS and later on other Nintendo handheld platforms such as the Nintendo 3DS and the Nintendo Switch. The series follows professor Hershal Layton who seeks to uncover the mysteries of the world by solving puzzles. The core gameplay of the franchise consists of puzzle-solving alongside narrative sequences. As highlighted, there are seven games in the series; this article will highlight the Professor Layton games in chronological order. The Professor Layton Games in Chronological Order Professor Layton and the Last Spectre Professor Layton and the Miracle Mask Professor Layton and the Azran Legacy Professor Layton and the Curious Village Professor Layton and the Diabolical Box Professor Layton Vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney Professor Layton and the Unwound Future Layton's Mystery Journey: Katrielle and the Millionaires' Conspiracy 1. Professor Layton and the Last Spectre In chronological order, Professor Layton and the Last Spectre is the first Professor Layton game but the fourth released. The game follows Layton as he uncovers the mysteries of the last spectre, which has been destroying the town of Misthallery. The first  Professor Layton game chronologically tells how Layton and his sidekick Luke Triton first met. Both were received well by fans and critics, scoring 83 from critics and 8.3 from users on Metacritic. Professor Layton and the Last Spectre 2. Professor Layton and the Miracle Mask Professor Layton and the Miracle Mask is the second game chronologically in the series. follows on from the adventures of the Last Spectre, with Layton and his companions uncovering the mysteries behind the evil Gentleman of Miracles, terrorising the town of Montdol. Miracle Mask was the first game in the series to be released on the Nintendo 3DS, releasing in 2011 in Japan and 2012 worldwide. Overall, Miracle mask received an 82 from critics and an 8.1 from fans on Metacritic. Professor Layton and the Miracle Mask 3. Professor Layton and the Azran Legacy Professor Layton and the Azran Legacy is the third game chronologically in the series releasing on the Nintendo 3DS between the years 2013-2014. The game follows Miracle Mask taking the professor and his companions on a grand adventure to discover the Azran civilisation and its treasure. takes the professor to new places such as the city of Froenborg and introduces new characters such as the mysterious Aurora, a living Mummy! Professor Layton and the Azran Legacy reviewed well, receiving a critic score of 81 and a user score of 8.1. Professor Layton and the Azran Legacy 4. Professor Layton and the Curious Village was the first Professor Layton game released and the fourth game chronologically in the series. The game was first released on the Nintendo DS in 2007 in Japan and 2008 worldwide, taking the video game world by storm due to its unique puzzle-solving mechanics and use of the Nintendo DS's touch capabilities. The game followed Professor Layton ad Luke as they sought to find the golden apple. The game reviewed well on Metacritic, achieving critic scores of 85 and user scores of 8.5. Professor Layton and the Curious Village 5. Professor Layton and the Diabolical Box Professor Layton and the Diabolical Box is the fifth Professor Layton game chronologically. takes the professor on an adventure to discover the mysteries of the Diabolical Box, which curses anyone who opens it and has supposedly killed Layton's mentor. Professor Layton and the Diabolical Box was the second game in the series to release on the Nintendo DS, carrying on the strong performance of Curious village, with scores of 84 from critics on Metacritic and user scores of 8.5. Professor Layton and the Diabolical Box 6. Professor Layton Vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney As highlighted above, the Professor Layton series also consists of one spin-off game: Professor Layton Vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney. is a crossover game between Professor Layton and Pheonix Wright. The game uses classic characters from the two series and also adds brand new characters. Professor Layton Vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney consists of two gameplay elements: puzzle gameplay carried out by Professor Layton, using similar gameplay mechanics as Professor Layton and the Miracle Mask and a Trials gameplay involving Phoenix Wright defending clients. The game is the sixth instalment in the Layton series and was reviewed well on Metacritic with user scores of 8.3 and a critic score of 79. Professor Layton Vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney 7. Professor Layton and the Unwound Future The seventh game in the professor Layton series chronologically is . Professor Layton and the Unwound Future was released on the Nintendo DS in 2008 as the third Layton game on the console. The game follows Layton and Luke as they uncover the mystery's behind a time machine in London, quickly finding themselves transported into the future and the past. The game features new puzzles, new locations and builds on the lore of the Layton games. The game received an 86 from critics on Metacritic and an 8.7 from users, making it one of the highest-rated Layton games. Professor Layton and the Unwound Future 8. Layton's Mystery Journey: Katrielle and the Millionaires' Conspiracy Layton's Mystery Journey: Katrielle and the Millionaires' Conspiracy is chronologically the latest instalment in the series and the last game released. follows the story of Layton's daughter Katrielle Layton as she seeks to find her father, who has gone missing. The game was released in 2017 and featured new puzzles and characters, and new mysteries to uncover. Layton's Mystery Journey: Katrielle and the Millionaires is the worst-reviewed game of the series, with scores of 72 from critics and 6.6 from users. Layton's Mystery Journey: Katrielle and the Millionaires Conspiracy Final Thoughts This article has covered the Professor Layton Games in Chronological Order. As highlighted above, the Professor Layton games are some of the best-reviewed puzzle games of all time. Despite this, they are still widely unknown, deserving more attention. Nevertheless, the Professor Layton games are in the upper echelons of the best puzzle games of all time. For more Nintendo-related news and features, in the footer below. subscribe to our newsletter Also, check out, 10 Best Pokémon ROM Hacks You Can Download for Free Destiny 2: Darkness in the Light Quest Guide Ultimate KOTOR 2 Planet Order: The Best Way to Traverse the Stars

The Professor Layton Games in Chronological Order

Los juegos del profesor Layton en orden cronológico

Back in March, the that the widespread use of the word “blockchain” by multinational companies, international institutions, and famous crypto-entrepreneurs, has transformed the technical term into a meaningless buzzword. Verge boldly claimed At the start of the article, the cites a few examples of companies that have hijacked the word blockchain for their shady marketing campaigns. One company such changed its name from to and saw its share price rise by 289%. Verge Long Island Iced Tea Corp. Long Blockchain Corp , These and perhaps many other companies have a vested interested in perpetuating blockchain ignorance. There are hundreds of companies running crypto-scams — many of which are ponzi schemes and that prey on the ignorance of cryptocurrency investors. The con-artists behind these pyramid schemes, and fake mining pools often purport to mine various cryptocurrencies with insanely high, and unreasonably consistent profit margins. fake mining pools A lot of crypto-ponzi investors are unaware of the fact that Bitcoin and every other mineable cryptocurrency have hash-rate difficulties that increase exponentially as more miners join their respective blockchain networks as nodes, and compete for the block reward: the newly minted cryptocurrency for each mined block. _The estimated number of tera hashes per second (trillions of hashes per second) the Bitcoin network is performing._www.blockchain.com Hash Rate All miners, including will experience diminishing returns, regardless of how much they have invested in mining hardware. The only way any given mining pool would make more money over time, is if other mining pools abandon their efforts. But that is an extremely unlikely scenario, because the of investing in mining hardware compels most miners to continue mining their respective cryptocurrencies until the cost of electricity is greater than the revenue they receive from mining. mining pools sunk cost The lack of a clear and precise working definition of what a blockchain is makes it harder for new, and naive crypto-investors to learn more about the technology. And their lack of knowledge makes them easy prey for a new generation of con-men. Unethical marketing campaigns from ambitious tech companies will only make the situation worse. The had pointed out how legitimate companies are deliberately spreading confusing information to bolster their marketing campaigns. The article gives an example of the consequences of prominent tech companies running marketing campaigns built on the nebulous idea of a blockchain. Verge According to the major news outlets such as the and had erroneously described Estonia’s national identity system as a blockchain technology. The attributes this error to the myth making borne from the marketing decisions of a private Estonian company. Verge, Harvard Business Review The New Yorker, Verge Estonia’s technology vendor, Guardtime, rebranded its offering from “ ” to a “blockchain technology.” That’s not necessarily untrue since “blockchain” has no agreed-upon definition — and for now, it’s a . hash-linked time-stamping good marketing tactic Many more of the world’s most important ideas are plagued by the same conceptual imprecision we see in blockchain technology. But unlike other scientific ideas, the blockchain is a real-world solution. The mere fact that developers have coded and implemented blockchain technologies means that a working definition for blockchain technology exist. No biologist has ever created life in a test tube or petri dish — and that may be why life has despite hundreds of years of research and experimentation. must no scientific definition, Scientists have been debating the scientific meaning of life since Thomas Huxley tried to explain what life is by describing the components of protoplasm in a lecture called . On The Physical Basis of Life Much of the confusion surrounding the term “blockchain” stems from an ongoing debate among software developers on whether or not a blockchain can be centralized. Can a single database hosted on just one server or one computer be described as a blockchain if it uses time-stamping, and hashing algorithms to connect chronologically recorded transactions? The short answer is no. A blockchain is fundamentally a data structure in which transactions are verified in batches called blocks, and the nodes or servers verify said transactions through a consensus algorithm. There are a variety of blockchain consensus algorithms, but they boil down to four essential variations: proof of work, proof of stake, proof of importance, and byzantine fault tolerance or some combination thereof. The notes that some people think a private blockchain is just a shared database, but these two types of distributed databases have different consensus algorithms. A private blockchain uses what can be colloquially referred to as a consensus algorithm or technically described as (PBFT), which requires each masternode or participating company in the network, to simultaneously verify each new transaction by submitting their respective private keys. A shared database on the other hand, uses (MVCC) — a system in which simultaneous transactions that produce conflicting outputs are processed in parallel. And according to Gideon Greenspan, the founder of Coin Sciences, we can think of a blockchain as a distributed MVCC. Verge proof-of-permission practical byzantine fault tolerance multi-concurrency version control Without a consensus algorithm there would be no reason to group transactions into uniquely identifiable and there would be no logical way to justify the use of a blockchain data structure. Bitcoin, for example, uses transaction blocks to set a quantifiable limit on the number of times miners must solve a nonce, the unique key of each batch or block of transactions, in order to determine the overall security of the network. blocks or batches A block or batch of transactions in Bitcoin’s blockchain can only be verified or approved, once miners find the nonce: the 256-bit answer or key to a mathematical puzzle called Hashcash The Verge then cited an article from David Gerard in which the director of the (WFP) tried to explain what a blockchain is. As shown in the following quote; Houman Haddad, one of WFP’s executives, thought a comparison to Git would help clarify the meaning of blockchain technology. World Food Programme Git like blockchain, uses merkle trees. A blockchain, in a certain sense, can be seen as a peer-to-peer (P2P) hosted Git repository. In order to modify this repository, users must have a copy of the whole repository and pull the latest commits. When you download a blockchain client and run it, you have to check out the entire blockchain history, much like checking out a Git repo. Not all distributed databases are blockchains, because not all distributed databases need to process transactions with a consensus algorithm. Git is the kind of distributed database that doesn’t need a consensus algorithm, because each super-user or masternode has complete control over a given code repository and these super-users don’t need to organize their transactions in batches or blocks. To become a blockchain, Git would need some of its code repositories to be owned by multiple companies, and these companies would have to simultaneously agree to each new code change before it was implemented in order to justify the use of a consensus algorithm. is a distributed database that has no consensus algorithm. Git Transactions or commits (code changes) in Git, can be processed one at a time or in batches, and the staging index where new data is temporarily stored is somewhat like Bitcoin’s memory pool of unconfirmed transactions, but neither one of these traits make Git more like a blockchain. The WFP’s private network, built on the Ethereum blockchain, may contain a semi-immutable record of the thousands if not millions of transactions that have taken place within Azraq — Jordan’s refugee camp for Syrians, but that doesn’t make it a blockchain. WFP’s private network could become a blockchain when international NGOs and private companies decide to host their own competing nodes on its network. The lack of trust among such competing institutions could justify the use of a consensus algorithm based on a blockchain data structure. A private network built with the code base of a blockchain, is not an actual blockchain. Ethereum’s transaction may have forced Haddad to build a private network. But since the launch of the , there’s just no reason to continue using a shared database. EOS is a feeless blockchain that can process thousands of transactions per second. If speed and transparency are the key attributes the WFP is looking for in their distributed database, then EOS may be the perfect fit. But if privacy is also a priority, then and are both great tools for building a private blockchain from scratch. gas costs EOS mainnet Tendermint Hyperledger The legal ramifications of ambiguous blockchain terminology may have an even bigger impact on the long-term growth of blockchain adoption than misleading marketing campaigns. Angela Walch, a law professor from St. Mary’s University, believes that are driven by misconceptions and a poor understanding of how the new technology actually works. She provided a few suggestions on how US politicians should go about writing blockchain laws, like hiring internal blockchain experts in their legislative committees. America’s current attempts to create blockchain legislation She went on to describe how some former state employees are now closely associated with blockchain businesses and may be trying to persuade legislators to adopt more favorable legislation on behalf of their new clients. Some of the blockchain industry players are now working together to build a blockchain lobbying group called The Blockchain Association. Professor Walch then argues that the confusion surrounding the idea of immutability has had a negative impact on US legislation. The term “immutable,” with its varying and sometimes non-intuitive meanings in describing blockchain technology, is one that I very much wish we could strike from the blockchain lexicon, as “by ridding ourselves of an unnecessary confusion we should gain very much in the clearness of our thought. Programmers are accustomed to the idea that certain objects, individual pieces of data in a program — can be in the sense that they cannot be changed, but they can be entirely deleted from the program or of the program in question. A lawyer, on the other hand, would think of immutability as a complete or absolute resistance to changes of any kind. immutable a module Unfortunately, many programmers are pragmatic short-termists who feel that software development is more important than business communication, and that’s why programmatic terminology is often only as precise and as thorough as a pragmatist needs it to be. Blockchain developers could start describing blockchains as semi-immutable databases, and with a little caution and diligence, they will in due time solve all the contentious issues surrounding blockchain jargon.

Blockchain is Not Meaningless

Shanghai, China Emerging markets are . home to 86% of the world’s millennials In fact, China and India host more millennials combined than the entire working population of the US and Western Europe. And they are a skilled demographic to be reckoned with. According to a Goldman Sachs report, than their parents. people born in China in the 1990s are 31% more likely to graduate Despite a young tech-savvy workforce budding with entrepreneurial spirit, emerging markets struggle to gain traction due to volatile financial markets and unreliable infrastructure. Blockchain is setting the world on fire, transforming every industry it touches and redefining how we understand technology. It will foster innovation and ideas everywhere, but nowhere more than in emerging economies. This is because blockchain provides a platform of trust and credibility that is difficult to tamper with. It has the ability to , many of which in emerging markets, and inject them into the world economy. identify and verify the 1.1 billion individuals with no documents Emerging economies are using innovative technologies like blockchain to speed up their development and cement their place as industry pioneers. They may seem at a disadvantage with their lacking infrastructure, however, it’s easier and less expensive to build the latest tech on a clean foundation than it is to replace the old and outdated. Blockchain technology can be compared to , where countries “leapfrogged” over fixed-line telephones. the smartphone boom in emerging markets And this rapid development has been replicated across the world. Kenya overcame a lack of banks not by creating more, but by . By banking the unbanked, Kenya spurred a payments revolution that . adopting mobile payment services raised 194,000 Kenyans from poverty Sugarcane production in Brazil While developing countries wean themselves off fossil fuels, Brazil is by creating ethanol through sugarcane production. skipping the “developed” progression of petrol as a fuel source And at the other end of the world, China is with their “Solar Valley.” investing in renewable energy Blockchain can help stabilize emerging economies, and incentivize foreign investors to work in these financial markets. In industries like finance and humanitarian aid, it replaces middlemen that are susceptible to corruption, or may take a cut for their services. Don Tapscott, co-founder of the Blockchain Research Institution, views today’s financial system as “a kludge of industrial technologies and paper-based processes dressed up in a digital wrapper.” Financial institutions are barely keeping up with the pace of technology, and with each misstep comes a devastating economic impact. This is especially true for emerging economies lacking the infrastructure and technology that most nations are built upon. Despite insufficient resources, emerging markets have enormous potential, with low-cost labor, abundant resources and untapped industries ready for investment. What holds them back is their high risk. Corruption, fraud and antiquated bureaucracy keep potential business partners looking elsewhere. Blockchain bolsters emerging economies on multiple fronts. It decreases corruption by providing a clear and transparent platform for tracking payments and assets. Plus, it cuts unnecessary costs that could be better used elsewhere. Remittances are one of the largest form of capital inflows for emerging economies. According to the Overseas Research Institute, . 12% of every $200 sent in 2015 went to banks and other financial institutions United Nations General Assembly Sending humanitarian aid has always been an affair, with countries stopping their contributions upon learning that their donations are being taken by tyrants. Blockchain allows donors to trace payments as they travel, ensuring they don’t fall into the wrong hands. , which is supported by over 40 humanitarian groups, tested their program by watching money as it moved from a school in the UK to four schools in Swaziland. Disberse And in Jordan’s Azraq camp, Syrian refugees are , with the money traveling along a blockchain-based system. using iris-identification technology to purchase groceries and supplies This idea came after the World Food Programme noticed they were paying local banks millions of meals worth of fees. Blockchain reduced 98% of that cost, allowing them to serve more for the same price. It has also inspired companies like Microsoft to work with non-profit organizations on ID2020, a mission to provide legal identity to the 1.1 billion people who lack one. Getting a job usually requires financial and government records. With blockchain, citizens have a cyber wallet that follows them where they go. Blockchain helps provide digital documentation that can’t be lost or stolen, and has led Dubai to run all government documentation through it by 2020. The possibilities of this are endless. The blockchain could be used to verify an individual’s age, education, lineage, even their professional experience. Blockchain technology is reinventing the way that people understand finance, security and transparency. But for emerging economies, it’s changing lives. Our world has never witnessed a technology singlehandedly alter industries in such a way. Providing these budding countries with the resources and technology they need to succeed will drive innovation and globalization to new heights.

Blockchain Empowers Emerging Markets

By: Marketing & Operations Officer Laura Marissa Cullell Can technology progress human rights? Provide humanitarian aid? Help combat Climate Change? Address issues of identity, trafficking, and provide access to food? The answer to these questions is yes. And Blockchain is a fantastic space to explore these issues right now. In the last article of our series on Unique and Interesting Use Cases for Blockchain, I explore some of the applications of blockchain to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals. explored just some of the use cases of this innovative tech in the oil and gas industry. saw the possibilities for blockchain in the Music Industry. looked at the possibilities of blockchain in healthcare. Part I Part II Part III For the past couple of months, I’ve been working on my thesis on Blockchain, Human Rights and International Law for the . I have had the chance to learn about a plethora of innovative projects, pilots, and ideas that human rights activists are currently working on to make the world a better place. Is it lucrative? Not always. But it does help make a tangible difference. U.N. Mandated University for Peace Here are some of the most interesting applications of Blockchain for Social impact, more specifically how this innovative technology addresses some of the Sustainable Development Goals. Blockchain Technology and the UN: The Sustainable Development Goals The UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) For those that are unfamiliar, in 2015, all 193 members of the United Nations unanimously passed a implementing a 15-year plan of achieving 17 Sustainable Development, global goals by 2030 (SDGs). Each of these goals has targets to achieve, totalling 169 different targets. The SDGs cover a broad range of social and economic development issues including poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, clean water, sanitation, energy, environment, and social justice. resolution SDG No. 2: Eradication of Hunger World Food Programme — Building Blocks UN Aid programs have been wrought with countless cases of fraud, red tape, hefty administrative fees and mismanagement of funds. In order to provide the maximum amount of aid to those who need it the most, the World Food Programme (WFP) implemented a pilot project in 2017 called Building Blocks. It was an early experiment that enabled the transfer of WFP Food and cash on a public Ethereum blockchain through a smartphone app to vulnerable families in Pakistan, addressing SDG Goal №1 and 2- poverty and hunger. Within months, the WFP expanded the pilot to a Syrian refugee camp in Azraq, Jordan to successfully facilitate cash transfers for over 10,000 Syrian refugees on its blockchain payments platform. According to , the implementation of blockchain technology also enabled Syrian refugees to buy food from local retailers using a biometric scan of their eye where each transaction was recorded on a blockchain, rendering the use of cash, bank cards, and paper vouchers obsolete. In this case, the refugees did not need to share any sensitive data with banks or mobile operators, benefiting from greater security and privacy through an immutable, secure blockchain. CCN Now, the World Food Programme is currently expanding its Ethereum-based blockchain after saving millions of dollars in bank transfers by utilizing decentralised blockchain technology. Currently, the WFP feeds over 100 million people across 80 countries. SDG No. 5: Gender Equality and Identity UN Women: Blockchain Simulation Lab is the only UN organ that was founded in the 21st Century. This organ of the UN is dedicated to gender equity and the empowerment of women and was established to accelerate progress of meeting their needs worldwide. Their focus is on increasing women’s leadership and participation, ending violence against women, engaging women in all aspects of peace and security processes,and making gender equality central to national development planning and budgeting. UN Women From January 29 — February 1, 2018, UN Women hosted a 4-day in order to create launching points of achieving goals like gender equality, and ending hunger and poverty. Successful programs from this lab would become part of larger UN initiatives including the UN Women’s Global Flagship Programmes for Disaster Risk Reduction. blockchain simulation lab The Blockchain simulation lab addressed humanitarian scenarios around identity. For stateless refugees, for example, identity isn’t limited to documentation. According to , Blockchain could provide a platform where storing identification documents as a viable way of proving their identity, in a humanitarian scenario. Daniell believes that authorities could also identity women or girls who have been trafficked or who have gone missing. Jordan Daniell The simulation lab is a create first step merging the pursuit of Gender equality and addressing other intersecting sustainable development goals. The winners of this hackathon was and his team. As social innovators from the Congo, and with experience in refugee camps on Malawi, they developed — an app that uses blockchain to enable secure money transfers among women entrepreneurs. This gives them absolute control over their own money, independent of any male members in their family. Olivier Mukuta VIPI Cash Other winners of this hackthon included — a secure place on blockchain built with Syncano where refugees can collect identity data which can be verified by trusted people their journey, and — a decentralized platform that verifies people’s skills and provides a digital verified CV. Digital Grab Bag Diwala SDG No. 13: Climate Action International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): The Green List The (IUCN) is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations. It provides public, private, and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress, economic development, and nature conservation to take place together. International Union for Conservation of Nature The is looking to utilize blockchain to administer its Green List of Global Conservation areas, which encourages and supports the creation of new and protected conservation sites around the world. Blockchain offers a reduction of bank fees, more transparency about Green List funding, and progress towards meeting its goals. IUCN James Hardcastle, the IUCN’s programme believes that many of these protected areas don’t have an abundance of money at their disposal so reducing financial friction and transaction costs diverts more money into preserving ecosystems. This way, the IUCN can guarantee that donor funds go straight to the site they want to help. Blockchain is also said to possible improve the system of carbon asset transactions. UN Climate Change ( ) believes that recording carbon assets on a public blockchain could guarantee transparency and ensure that transactions are valid and settled automatically. UNFCC SDG No. 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions and Digital Identities ID2020 Article 6 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights stipulates that “ .” The Sustainable Development Goals (2015–2030) include target 16.9 which aims to “ ID2020 believes this must include the >20M refugees worldwide and seeks to provide. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law provide legal identity to all, including birth registration, by 2030.” ID2020 is an alliance of governments, NGOs, and the private sector, along with the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights. All of these entities seek to use blockchain technology to give refugees a digital identity. They have currently teamed up with and are looking at rolling out an inter-operable, user-owned and controlled digital identity to its hundreds of thousands of staff. They hope that this initiative will evolve to a standard background check which can be distributed to potential clients using a biometrics system that can manage data on fingerprints and irises. Accenture Improvements on failed Governance Models One of the biggest advantage of using blockchain technology lies in its’ governance mechanisms. Blockchains enable trust which would, in turn, help mitigate corruption. Current international and domestic governance models are wrought with bureaucracy, red tape, and inefficiencies, which hinders access to these key governance structures. The proposed a model of Good Governance which provides a cursory framework for how governments should operate: UNDP Participation — all citizens have the right to an equal voice in decision making Rule of Law — fair an impartial legal frameworks specifically regarding human rights. Transparency — based on free flow of information, where processes, institutions and information is always readily accessible. Responsiveness — Institutions and government agencies serve all stakeholders. Consensus Orientation — acknowledging differing interests and attempts to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interests of the group and (where possible), on policies and procedures Equity — All citizens regardless of gender, have opportunities to maintain their well-being Effectiveness and Efficiency — Allows both processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while making the best use of resources Accountability — where decision makers in government, the private sector, and civil society organizations are accountable to the public as well as to institutional stakeholders. Blockchain strengthens trust, and promotes information sharing between institutions and the public. It can have an impact on democratic voting models and promote the principles of good governance.A blockchain operates on the principles of consensus, accountability and transparency between all parties. According to , “Local communities could be empowered to manage their natural resources through ad hoc voting. For example, fish might be traded on a platform only if harvest quotas were approved by a community-based democratic process.” Guillaume Chapron By digitizing governance models and facilitating the creation of digital societies, such as , achieving access to just and peaceful institutions is definitely attainable. e-Estonia Challenges with the Technology Blockchain is still in its exploration and infancy phase and may not be suitable for every UN/International humanitarian Agency. For , Chief Innovation Manager at the Porini Foundation, ‘Blockchain for Good’ offers great potential, but cannot be viewed in isolation as a silver bullet for all the world’s pressing issues. Toni Caradonna “Blockchain can give transparency, efficiency gains and independence from banks, but we still need cooperation from legislators. Blockchain alone cannot solve the problem of people who feel free to pollute thinking that someone else will come along and clear up the mess.” State-level and international policy networks need to adapt and allow for innovations while providing adequate legislation that provides a base-level guidance on what can and can’t be accomplished with Blockchain. It’s also hard to ignore the technical challenges. Bitcoin, for example, is slow. Ethereum is an improvement but more are required before it can be universally applied. It’s also important to note that , and if someone were to lose their cryptographic key, or access to a blockchain, there is not way to retrieve it again. to err is human With the ongoing blurring lines between the real and digital world, there have been increasing concerns of data ownership and access to services. With all of these innovations, there needs to be adequate protections in place to protect the identities of refugees or stateless individuals. There is also the issue of the digital divide. This term has typically referred to the gap between those who have access to certain technologies and those that do not. Many developing countries do not have the adequate infrastructure or ability to provide with high-speed internet or digital accessibility. All humanitarian efforts with blockchain are moot if sustainable, cost-effective, long-term solutions cannot be adopted. Blockchain and the progression of Human Rights believes that blockchain presents an opportunity for the Internet development community to claim a degree of recognition in the human rights realm. Kobina Hughes It only makes sense that technology is being utilised to promote gender equality and address current social concerns in ways that are only able to be explored now due to innovations in technology. The fact that Blockchain is currently being adopted by governments and international organs is a wonderful first step at utilizing technology for promoting human rights for all. Do you know of any other interesting developments with Blockchain and the Sustainable Development Goals? Let us know in the comments below! Laura Marissa Cullell is the Marketing & Operations Officer at BlockX Labs. She is a MA Graduate of the UN University of Peace in International Law and Human Rights. She loves puns, glitter, and reading an obscene amount of books. You can reach her at: lcullell@blockxlabs.com

Blockchain and the Sustainable Development Goals

In programming, we often need to go between strings and bytes. Humans read strings. Computers read bytes. As a result, dotnet developers need to understand how to convert a string to a byte array in C#. We accomplish this through a process called encoding and decoding to go back and forth between the two. In this article, I’ll provide you code examples to convert a string to a byte array in C# — and back again! You’ll also learn about some of the nuances of character encodings to look out for! Encoding and Decoding in C# If we want to convert a string to a byte array — or go the other way — we need to understand the concept of encoding and decoding. In software engineering, encoding refers to the process of transforming a string into a sequence of bytes, while decoding involves the reverse process of transforming bytes back into a string. Simple, right? Remember that strings are a sequence of characters, and the concept of a character makes a lot of sense to us as readers, but computers understand bytes. Characters themselves can be represented by numbers in computers so when we want to work with strings at a lower level, such as when sending data over a network or storing it in a file, we need to convert the string into a byte array. Encoding comes into play when converting strings to byte arrays. It determines how the characters in the string are represented as bytes. The encoding scheme defines the mapping between characters and their byte representations. Common encoding schemes include UTF-8, UTF-16, ASCII, and Unicode. Choosing the correct encoding is important because different encoding schemes support different sets of characters. For example, ASCII only supports the basic English alphabet (with a few more characters), while UTF-8 and UTF-16 are capable of representing characters from multiple languages and scripts. More on this later though since I know you’re eager for some code! Choosing an Encoding for String to Byte Array Conversion When converting strings to byte arrays in C#, one of the most important things to consider is character encoding. Character encoding determines the mapping between characters and byte values, and if you’re considering transforming data one way then you may want to put some thought into how to transform it back! What’s that supposed to mean? Well, if we use a data transform — let’s say taking a string and transforming it to bytes with an ASCII encoding — if there is not a mapping of a particular character to a byte representation we lose that data in the result. Now what happens if you want to go the other way and get your byte array back to a string? Data is missing! In C#, there are various encodings available, including ASCII, UTF-8, and UTF-16, each with its specific characteristics and usage scenarios. Let’s explore these encodings and see how they can be used for string to byte array conversion. ASCII Encoding ASCII encoding represents characters using 7 bits, allowing for a total of 128 different characters. It’s primarily suitable for handling basic English characters and is more space-efficient compared to other encodings. Here’s an example of converting a string to a byte array using ASCII encoding: string text = "Hello, World!";
byte[] asciiBytes = Encoding.ASCII.GetBytes(text); In many modern applications, ASCII may not be what you’re after. This is especially true if you have users across the globe in locales that are not English. That’s not to say that ASCII *cannot* be used, but you’ll want to be careful about what data you ASCII encode so as to not lose information during the encoding transform. So keep in mind that the ASCII character set represents characters using a 7-bit encoding scheme, allowing for a total of 128 unique characters. However, with the growing need for internationalization and multilingual support, ASCII alone is insufficient to represent all characters effectively. Good thing we have some other options coming right up! UTF-8 Encoding UTF-8 encoding is a variable-length encoding scheme that can represent any Unicode character. It’s widely used for encoding text in various languages and is backward compatible with ASCII. It uses fewer bytes for representing ASCII characters but may require more bytes for non-ASCII characters. Here’s an example of converting a string to a byte array using UTF-8 encoding: string text = "Привет, мир!";
byte[] utf8Bytes = Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(text); UTF-16 Encoding UTF-16 encoding represents characters using either 2 or 4 bytes, making it capable of representing any Unicode character. It’s commonly used by applications that need to handle multilingual text or when interoperability with other systems is required. The encoding can be little-endian or big-endian, with the former being more prevalent. Here’s an example of converting a string to a byte array using UTF-16 encoding: string text = "こんにちは、世界！";
byte[] utf16Bytes = Encoding.Unicode.GetBytes(text); UTF-8 Encoding vs UTF-16 Encoding – What’s The Difference? Each of these encodings is variable width, and their size gives them different characteristics when we consider different alphabets. Starting with UTF-8, it’s variable-width and backward-compatible with ASCII. In this encoding: ASCII characters, which are on the range U+0000 to U+007F, take only 1 byte.
In the next range, code points U+0080 to U+07FF take twice as much space at 2 bytes each.
Code points U+0800 to U+FFFF take one more byte, bringing us up to 3 bytes
And finally, code points U+10000 to U+10FFFF take 4 bytes. This can be very effective for English text because those characters will take up minimal space. However, when it comes to Asian text it’s not ideal for the exact opposite reason. Because UTF-16 has code points from U+0000 to U+FFFF take 2 bytes and code points U+10000 to U+10FFFF are double that at 4 bytes, it’s not-so-great for English. It *does* happen to be better suited for Asian characters though. There’s even UTF-32 encoding! This is a fixed-width encoding where all of the code points take four bytes — unlike the others I’ve mentioned which are dynamic in size. This can use much more storage than the other encodings, but because of its simplicity can be much faster to operate on. Give some consideration to the alphabets you’ll need to support primarily! Best Practices for String to Byte Array Conversion When converting strings to byte arrays in C#, it’s important to follow best practices to ensure efficiency and reliability. In this section, I’ll discuss some key best practices that you should keep in mind when performing string-to-byte array conversions. Error Handling and Validation When working with encodings, it’s important to handle potential errors and validate your data to prevent unexpected behavior in your code. Ideally, you structure the flow of your application such that you know what kind of data you’re dealing with. If you can write code to avoid errors in the first place, this is preferred! We don’t want to have to rely on this but sometimes it’s outside of our control — handling errors is by using try-catch blocks. By encapsulating the conversion code within a try block, you can catch any exceptions that may occur during the conversion process and handle them gracefully. If you don’t have control over the source of the input data, this is something you might need to do for safety. Encoding Selection C# provides several encoding options for converting strings to byte arrays, such as UTF-8, UTF-16, ASCII, and more. It’s important to select the appropriate encoding based on the specific requirements of your application. Consider factors such as character sets, compatibility with other systems, and performance implications when choosing the encoding. // Example of encoding selection
string inputString = "Hello, World!";
byte[] encodedBytes = Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(inputString); Just like we saw in the previous examples, after the Encoding class we get to pick the static property holding the encoding instance. If we need to select one to pass around as a variable and parameter, you can absolutely store it in a dedicated encoding reference: Encoding selectedEncoding = Encoding.UTF8;
SomeMethod("Hello World!", selectedEncoding); Selecting the wrong encoding can have big consequences for your application! This is especially true if you save data with an encoding that will lose data resolution and you can’t reverse it… so put some care into this! Now You Know How to Convert a String to Byte Array in C#! You’re a pro now with encoding and decoding! Well, maybe not a full-on expert… but you have the basics put in front of you and some guidelines to work with. That’s a pretty good start. Remember to select the right encoding for the situation you’re dealing with. Keep in mind that you can potentially lose data resolution when using the wrong encoding, and as a result, lose data forever! If you found this useful and you’re looking for more learning opportunities, consider subscribing to my free weekly software engineering newsletter and check out my free videos on YouTube! In programming , we often need to go between strings and bytes. Humans read strings. Computers read bytes. As a result, dotnet developers need to understand how to convert a string to a byte array in C#. We accomplish this through a process called encoding and decoding to go back and forth between the two. programming In this article, I’ll provide you code examples to convert a string to a byte array in C# — and back again! You’ll also learn about some of the nuances of character encodings to look out for! Encoding and Decoding in C# If we want to convert a string to a byte array — or go the other way — we need to understand the concept of encoding and decoding. In software engineering, encoding refers to the process of transforming a string into a sequence of bytes, while decoding involves the reverse process of transforming bytes back into a string. Simple, right? Remember that strings are a sequence of characters, and the concept of a character makes a lot of sense to us as readers, but computers understand bytes. Characters themselves can be represented by numbers in computers so when we want to work with strings at a lower level, such as when sending data over a network or storing it in a file, we need to convert the string into a byte array. Encoding comes into play when converting strings to byte arrays. It determines how the characters in the string are represented as bytes. The encoding scheme defines the mapping between characters and their byte representations. Common encoding schemes include UTF-8, UTF-16, ASCII, and Unicode . how encoding scheme defines the mapping between characters Common encoding schemes include UTF-8, UTF-16, ASCII, and Unicode Choosing the correct encoding is important because different encoding schemes support different sets of characters. For example, ASCII only supports the basic English alphabet (with a few more characters), while UTF-8 and UTF-16 are capable of representing characters from multiple languages and scripts. More on this later though since I know you’re eager for some code! Choosing an Encoding for String to Byte Array Conversion When converting strings to byte arrays in C#, one of the most important things to consider is character encoding. Character encoding determines the mapping between characters and byte values, and if you’re considering transforming data one way then you may want to put some thought into how to transform it back! What’s that supposed to mean? Well, if we use a data transform — let’s say taking a string and transforming it to bytes with an ASCII encoding — if there is not a mapping of a particular character to a byte representation we lose that data in the result. Now what happens if you want to go the other way and get your byte array back to a string? Data is missing! In C#, there are various encodings available, including ASCII, UTF-8, and UTF-16, each with its specific characteristics and usage scenarios. Let’s explore these encodings and see how they can be used for string to byte array conversion. ASCII Encoding ASCII encoding represents characters using 7 bits, allowing for a total of 128 different characters. It’s primarily suitable for handling basic English characters and is more space-efficient compared to other encodings. Here’s an example of converting a string to a byte array using ASCII encoding: string text = "Hello, World!";
byte[] asciiBytes = Encoding.ASCII.GetBytes(text); string text = "Hello, World!";
byte[] asciiBytes = Encoding.ASCII.GetBytes(text); In many modern applications, ASCII may not be what you’re after. This is especially true if you have users across the globe in locales that are not English. That’s not to say that ASCII *cannot* be used, but you’ll want to be careful about what data you ASCII encode so as to not lose information during the encoding transform. So keep in mind that the ASCII character set represents characters using a 7-bit encoding scheme, allowing for a total of 128 unique characters. However, with the growing need for internationalization and multilingual support, ASCII alone is insufficient to represent all characters effectively. Good thing we have some other options coming right up! UTF-8 Encoding UTF-8 encoding is a variable-length encoding scheme that can represent any Unicode character. It’s widely used for encoding text in various languages and is backward compatible with ASCII. It uses fewer bytes for representing ASCII characters but may require more bytes for non-ASCII characters. Here’s an example of converting a string to a byte array using UTF-8 encoding: string text = "Привет, мир!";
byte[] utf8Bytes = Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(text); string text = "Привет, мир!";
byte[] utf8Bytes = Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(text); UTF-16 Encoding UTF-16 encoding represents characters using either 2 or 4 bytes, making it capable of representing any Unicode character. It’s commonly used by applications that need to handle multilingual text or when interoperability with other systems is required. The encoding can be little-endian or big-endian, with the former being more prevalent. Here’s an example of converting a string to a byte array using UTF-16 encoding: string text = "こんにちは、世界！";
byte[] utf16Bytes = Encoding.Unicode.GetBytes(text); string text = "こんにちは、世界！";
byte[] utf16Bytes = Encoding.Unicode.GetBytes(text); UTF-8 Encoding vs UTF-16 Encoding – What’s The Difference? Each of these encodings is variable width, and their size gives them different characteristics when we consider different alphabets. Starting with UTF-8, it’s variable-width and backward-compatible with ASCII. In this encoding: ASCII characters, which are on the range U+0000 to U+007F, take only 1 byte. In the next range, code points U+0080 to U+07FF take twice as much space at 2 bytes each. Code points U+0800 to U+FFFF take one more byte, bringing us up to 3 bytes And finally, code points U+10000 to U+10FFFF take 4 bytes. ASCII characters, which are on the range U+0000 to U+007F, take only 1 byte. In the next range, code points U+0080 to U+07FF take twice as much space at 2 bytes each. Code points U+0800 to U+FFFF take one more byte, bringing us up to 3 bytes And finally, code points U+10000 to U+10FFFF take 4 bytes. This can be very effective for English text because those characters will take up minimal space. However, when it comes to Asian text it’s not ideal for the exact opposite reason. Because UTF-16 has code points from U+0000 to U+FFFF take 2 bytes and code points U+10000 to U+10FFFF are double that at 4 bytes, it’s not-so-great for English. It *does* happen to be better suited for Asian characters though. There’s even UTF-32 encoding! This is a fixed-width encoding where all of the code points take four bytes — unlike the others I’ve mentioned which are dynamic in size. This can use much more storage than the other encodings, but because of its simplicity can be much faster to operate on. Give some consideration to the alphabets you’ll need to support primarily! Best Practices for String to Byte Array Conversion When converting strings to byte arrays in C#, it’s important to follow best practices to ensure efficiency and reliability. In this section, I’ll discuss some key best practices that you should keep in mind when performing string-to-byte array conversions. Error Handling and Validation When working with encodings, it’s important to handle potential errors and validate your data to prevent unexpected behavior in your code. Ideally, you structure the flow of your application such that you know what kind of data you’re dealing with. If you can write code to avoid errors in the first place, this is preferred! We don’t want to have to rely on this but sometimes it’s outside of our control — handling errors is by using try-catch blocks. By encapsulating the conversion code within a try block, you can catch any exceptions that may occur during the conversion process and handle them gracefully. If you don’t have control over the source of the input data, this is something you might need to do for safety. Encoding Selection C# provides several encoding options for converting strings to byte arrays, such as UTF-8, UTF-16, ASCII, and more. It’s important to select the appropriate encoding based on the specific requirements of your application. Consider factors such as character sets, compatibility with other systems, and performance implications when choosing the encoding. // Example of encoding selection
string inputString = "Hello, World!";
byte[] encodedBytes = Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(inputString); // Example of encoding selection
string inputString = "Hello, World!";
byte[] encodedBytes = Encoding.UTF8.GetBytes(inputString); Just like we saw in the previous examples, after the Encoding class we get to pick the static property holding the encoding instance. If we need to select one to pass around as a variable and parameter, you can absolutely store it in a dedicated encoding reference: Encoding selectedEncoding = Encoding.UTF8;
SomeMethod("Hello World!", selectedEncoding); Encoding selectedEncoding = Encoding.UTF8;
SomeMethod("Hello World!", selectedEncoding); Selecting the wrong encoding can have big consequences for your application! This is especially true if you save data with an encoding that will lose data resolution and you can’t reverse it… so put some care into this! Now You Know How to Convert a String to Byte Array in C#! You’re a pro now with encoding and decoding! Well, maybe not a full-on expert… but you have the basics put in front of you and some guidelines to work with. That’s a pretty good start. Remember to select the right encoding for the situation you’re dealing with. Keep in mind that you can potentially lose data resolution when using the wrong encoding, and as a result, lose data forever! If you found this useful and you’re looking for more learning opportunities, consider subscribing to my free weekly software engineering newsletter and check out my free videos on YouTube ! subscribing to my free weekly software engineering newsletter free videos on YouTube

How to Convert a String to Byte Array in C#

How to Compare the Same Contents but Different Ordered Arrays in JavaScript

Optimization involves choosing Span<T> over Arrays for manipulating memory regions. Discover a better approach using Spans on Day 23 of our 30-Day .NET Challenge. This article demonstrates the use of Span<T> for optimizing memory management, highlighting the performance benefits. Learning Objectives Drawbacks of the array in memory management
Efficiency of Spans Prerequisites for Developers Basic understanding of C# programming language. Getting Started The drawbacks of Arrays Generally, developers use an array to store sequences of elements in continuous memory locations. Arrays are quite simple and easy to understand. A code snippet of the byte array is shown below: // Bad way: Using arrays may lead to unnecessary memory allocations and copying
    byte[] data = GetData();
    ProcessData(data); The problem with the above code is that it may lead to unnecessary memory allocations and copying because GetData creates a new array each time. The aforementioned code block will degrade the performance of the applications that require high data processing or applications that have limited memory resources. Efficiency of Spans Please find below the refactored version of the previous code snippet. // Good way: Using Span<T> avoids additional memory allocation and copying
    byte[] data = GetData();
    Span<byte> dataSpan = data.AsSpan();
    ProcessData(dataSpan); The Span<T> provides a type-safe and memory-safe view of contiguous memory regions without worrying about the copy issue highlighted previously. Using the AsSpan() method creates a view of the original array without copying or creating a new memory each time. Complete Code Create another class named SpanOverArrayand add the following code snippet: public static class SpanOverArray
    {
        public static void ProcessData(byte[] data)
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Processing byte array:");
            foreach (var b in data)
            {
                Console.Write($"{b} ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine("\n");
        }
    
        public static void ProcessData(Span<byte> dataSpan)
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Processing Span<byte>:");
            foreach (var b in dataSpan)
            {
                Console.Write($"{b} ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine("\n");
        }
    } Execute from the main method as follows #region Day 23: Span Over Arrays
    static string ExecuteDay23()
    {
    
        byte[] largeData = new byte[100]; // Simulate a large data set
        Random rng = new Random();
        rng.NextBytes(largeData); // Populate with random bytes
    
        // Process using array slice
        byte[] slice = new byte[10]; // Creating a new array for the slice
        Array.Copy(largeData, 10, slice, 0, 10); // Copying data
        SpanOverArray.ProcessData(slice);
    
        // Process using Span<T>
        Span<byte> span = largeData.AsSpan(10, 10); // Creating a span starting at index 10
        SpanOverArray.ProcessData(span);
        return "Executed Day 23 successfully..!!";
    }
    
    #endregion Console Output Processing byte array:
    75 20 132 37 218 170 182 227 224 146
    
    Processing Span<byte>:
    75 20 132 37 218 170 182 227 224 146 Complete Code: GitHub — ssukhpinder/30DayChallenge.Net Thank you for being a part of the C# community! Before you leave: Follow on: Youtube | X | LinkedIn | Dev.to
Visit our other platforms: GitHub Optimization involves choosing Span<T> over Arrays for manipulating memory regions. Discover a better approach using Spans on Day 23 of our 30-Day .NET Challenge. Optimization involves choosing Span<T> over Arrays for manipulating memory regions. Discover a better approach using Spans on Day 23 of our 30-Day .NET Challenge. Optimization involves choosing Span<T> over Arrays for manipulating memory regions. Discover a better approach using Spans on Day 23 of our 30-Day .NET Challenge. 30-Day .NET Challenge. This article demonstrates the use of Span<T> for optimizing memory management, highlighting the performance benefits. Learning Objectives Drawbacks of the array in memory management Efficiency of Spans Drawbacks of the array in memory management Efficiency of Spans Prerequisites for Developers Basic understanding of C# programming language. Basic understanding of C# programming language. C# programming language. Getting Started The drawbacks of Arrays Generally, developers use an array to store sequences of elements in continuous memory locations. Arrays are quite simple and easy to understand. A code snippet of the byte array is shown below: // Bad way: Using arrays may lead to unnecessary memory allocations and copying
    byte[] data = GetData();
    ProcessData(data); // Bad way: Using arrays may lead to unnecessary memory allocations and copying
    byte[] data = GetData();
    ProcessData(data); The problem with the above code is that it may lead to unnecessary memory allocations and copying because GetData creates a new array each time. The aforementioned code block will degrade the performance of the applications that require high data processing or applications that have limited memory resources. Efficiency of Spans Please find below the refactored version of the previous code snippet. // Good way: Using Span<T> avoids additional memory allocation and copying
    byte[] data = GetData();
    Span<byte> dataSpan = data.AsSpan();
    ProcessData(dataSpan); // Good way: Using Span<T> avoids additional memory allocation and copying
    byte[] data = GetData();
    Span<byte> dataSpan = data.AsSpan();
    ProcessData(dataSpan); The Span<T> provides a type-safe and memory-safe view of contiguous memory regions without worrying about the copy issue highlighted previously. Using the AsSpan() method creates a view of the original array without copying or creating a new memory each time. Complete Code Create another class named SpanOverArrayand add the following code snippet: public static class SpanOverArray
    {
        public static void ProcessData(byte[] data)
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Processing byte array:");
            foreach (var b in data)
            {
                Console.Write($"{b} ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine("\n");
        }
    
        public static void ProcessData(Span<byte> dataSpan)
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Processing Span<byte>:");
            foreach (var b in dataSpan)
            {
                Console.Write($"{b} ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine("\n");
        }
    } public static class SpanOverArray
    {
        public static void ProcessData(byte[] data)
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Processing byte array:");
            foreach (var b in data)
            {
                Console.Write($"{b} ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine("\n");
        }
    
        public static void ProcessData(Span<byte> dataSpan)
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Processing Span<byte>:");
            foreach (var b in dataSpan)
            {
                Console.Write($"{b} ");
            }
            Console.WriteLine("\n");
        }
    } Execute from the main method as follows #region Day 23: Span Over Arrays
    static string ExecuteDay23()
    {
    
        byte[] largeData = new byte[100]; // Simulate a large data set
        Random rng = new Random();
        rng.NextBytes(largeData); // Populate with random bytes
    
        // Process using array slice
        byte[] slice = new byte[10]; // Creating a new array for the slice
        Array.Copy(largeData, 10, slice, 0, 10); // Copying data
        SpanOverArray.ProcessData(slice);
    
        // Process using Span<T>
        Span<byte> span = largeData.AsSpan(10, 10); // Creating a span starting at index 10
        SpanOverArray.ProcessData(span);
        return "Executed Day 23 successfully..!!";
    }
    
    #endregion #region Day 23: Span Over Arrays
    static string ExecuteDay23()
    {
    
        byte[] largeData = new byte[100]; // Simulate a large data set
        Random rng = new Random();
        rng.NextBytes(largeData); // Populate with random bytes
    
        // Process using array slice
        byte[] slice = new byte[10]; // Creating a new array for the slice
        Array.Copy(largeData, 10, slice, 0, 10); // Copying data
        SpanOverArray.ProcessData(slice);
    
        // Process using Span<T>
        Span<byte> span = largeData.AsSpan(10, 10); // Creating a span starting at index 10
        SpanOverArray.ProcessData(span);
        return "Executed Day 23 successfully..!!";
    }
    
    #endregion Console Output Processing byte array:
    75 20 132 37 218 170 182 227 224 146
    
    Processing Span<byte>:
    75 20 132 37 218 170 182 227 224 146 Processing byte array:
    75 20 132 37 218 170 182 227 224 146
    
    Processing Span<byte>:
    75 20 132 37 218 170 182 227 224 146 Complete Code: GitHub — ssukhpinder/30DayChallenge.Net Complete Code: GitHub — ssukhpinder/30DayChallenge.Net GitHub — ssukhpinder/30DayChallenge.Net Thank you for being a part of the C# community! Before you leave: Follow on: Youtube | X | LinkedIn | Dev.to Visit our other platforms: GitHub Follow on: Youtube | X | LinkedIn | Dev.to Youtube X LinkedIn Dev.to Visit our other platforms: GitHub GitHub

The 30-Day .NET Challenge - Day 23: Span<T> over Arrays

Web3 in Saudi Arabia: Faisal Al Monai's Insights on the Next Digital Frontier

ArrayPool<T>, a mechanism to recycle temporary buffers and optimize performance by reducing garbage collection cycles. Introduction Frequent allocation and deallocation of bigger buffers can impact performance due to the increased work on the garbage collector. The recommendation is to use ArrayPool<T>, a mechanism to recycle temporary buffers and optimize performance by reducing garbage collection cycles. Learning Objectives Understanding the Problem with Traditional Buffer Allocation The Approach Using ArrayPool<T> Best Practices for Using ArrayPool<T> Prerequisites for Developers Basic understanding of C# programming language. 30 Day .Net Challenge Getting Started Understanding the Problem with Traditional Buffer Allocation A common approach developers use involves directly allocating a new buffer // Allocating a new large buffer
byte[] buffer = new byte[4096]; While the aforementioned code snippet looks clean and straightforward, it has significant drawbacks regarding performance, particularly in applications that frequently request large temporary buffers. Each allocation will increase the heap size, leading to more frequent garbage collection. The Approach Using ArrayPool<T> ArrayPool<T> is part of the System.Buffers namespace and provides temporary arrays, thereby reducing the need for frequent memory allocations and GC. // Using ArrayPool<T> to recycle large buffers
var pool = ArrayPool<byte>.Shared;
byte[] buffer = pool.Rent(4096);
try
{
    // Work with the buffer
}
finally
{
    pool.Return(buffer);
} Best Practices for Using ArrayPool<T> While ArrayPool<T> can significantly enhance performance, there are best practices to ensure its effective use: Always return the rented buffers to the pool in a final block to ensure that they are returned even if an exception occurs. Properly Return Buffers: If sensitive data is stored in the buffer, use the overload of the Return method that takes a boolean parameter indicating whether the buffer should be cleared. Clear Buffers When Necessary: Rent buffers for the shortest time necessary to keep the pool efficient and avoid exhausting the pool. Avoid Holding Buffers for Long Periods: Complete Code Create another class named ArrayPoolExample and add the following code snippet. public static class ArrayPoolExample
{
    public static void BadMethod()
    {
        // Allocating a new large buffer
        byte[] buffer = new byte[4096];
        // Simulate work with the buffer
        FillBuffer(buffer, 0xAA); // Example operation
        Console.WriteLine("Buffer used and will be discarded after method execution.");
    }

    public static void GoodMethod()
    {
        var pool = ArrayPool<byte>.Shared;
        byte[] buffer = pool.Rent(4096);
        try
        {
            // Work with the buffer
            FillBuffer(buffer, 0xBB); // Example operation
            Console.WriteLine("Buffer rented from the pool and returned after use.");
        }
        finally
        {
            pool.Return(buffer);
        }
    }

    public static void FillBuffer(byte[] buffer, byte value)
    {
        for (int i = 0; i < buffer.Length; i++)
        {
            buffer[i] = value;
        }
        // Just an example to simulate buffer usage
        Console.WriteLine($"Buffer filled with value: {value}");
    }
} Execute from the main method as follows. #region Day 22: Array Pool
static string ExecuteDay22()
{

    Console.WriteLine("Demonstrating BAD Method:");
    ArrayPoolExample.BadMethod();
    Console.WriteLine("\nDemonstrating GOOD Method:");
    ArrayPoolExample.GoodMethod();
    return "Executed Day 22 successfully..!!";
}

#endregion Console Output Demonstrating BAD Method:
Buffer filled with value: 170
Buffer used and will be discarded after method execution.

Demonstrating GOOD Method:
Buffer filled with value: 187
Buffer rented from the pool and returned after use. Complete Code on GitHub GitHub — ssukhpinder/30DayChallenge.Net C# Programming🚀 Thank you for being a part of the C# community! Before you leave: Follow us: | | | Youtube X LinkedIn Dev.to Visit our other platforms: GitHub More content at C# Programming

The 30-Day .NET Challenge - Day 22: Use Array Pool

Introduction The article demonstrates the use of various C# helper methods like Sort, Reverse, Clear and Resize. Learning Objectives Learn how to use helper methods like Sort() and Reverse() Learn how to use helper methods like Clear() and Resize() Prerequisites for Developers Familiar with arrays. Familiar with if statement Experience in running C# code through Visual Studio or Visual Studio Code. Getting Started How to use a Sort helper method Utilize the Array class’s Sort() method to arrange the elements in the array in alphanumeric order. To begin, create a static class file called “ArrayHelperMethods.cs” within the console application. Insert the provided code snippet into this file. public static class ArrayHelperMethods
    {
        /// <summary>
        /// Outputs
        /// Before Sorting...
        /// B14, A11, B12, A13
        /// After Sorting...
        /// A11, A13, B12, B14
        /// </summary>
        public static void SortExample()
        {
            Console.WriteLine("Before Sorting...");
            string[] pallets = { "B14", "A11", "B12", "A13" };
    
            Console.WriteLine(string.Join(",", pallets));
    
            Array.Sort(pallets);
    
            Console.WriteLine("After Sorting...");
            Console.WriteLine(string.Join(",", pallets));
        }
    } Execute the code from the main method as follows #region Day 11 - Helper Methods  -  Array
    
    ArrayHelperMethods.SortExample();
    
    #endregion Console Output Before Sorting...
    B14,A11,B12,A13
    After Sorting...
    A11,A13,B12,B14 How to use the Reverse helper method In the following example, let’s execute the Reverse() method from the Array class to invert the sequence of elements. To do that, add another method into the same static class as shown below. /// <summary>
    /// Outputs
    /// Before Sorting...
    /// B14,A11,B12,A13
    /// After Reverse Sorting...
    /// A13,B12,A11,B14
    /// </summary>
    public static void ReverseSortExample() {
    
        Console.WriteLine("Before Sorting...");
        string[] pallets = { "B14", "A11", "B12", "A13" };
    
        Console.WriteLine(string.Join(",", pallets));
    
        Array.Reverse(pallets);
    
        Console.WriteLine("After Reverse Sorting...");
        Console.WriteLine(string.Join(",", pallets));
    } Execute the code from the main method as follows #region Day 11 - Helper Methods  -  Array
    
    ArrayHelperMethods.ReverseSortExample();
    
    #endregion Console Output Before Sorting...
    B14,A11,B12,A13
    After Reverse Sorting...
    A13,B12,A11,B14 How to use the Clear Helper method The Array.Clear() method helps to clear the value of specified elements within the array. To do that, add another method into the same static class as shown below /// <summary>
    /// Outputs
    /// Clearing 2 ... count: 4
    /// ,,B12,A13
    /// </summary>
    public static void ClearExample()
    {
        string[] pallets = { "B14", "A11", "B12", "A13" };
        Console.WriteLine("");
    
        Array.Clear(pallets, 0, 2);
        Console.WriteLine($"Clearing 2 ... count: {pallets.Length}");
    
        Console.WriteLine(string.Join(",", pallets));
    }

Execute the code from the main method as follows

    #region Day 11 - Helper Methods  -  Array
    
    ArrayHelperMethods.ClearExample();
    
    #endregion Console Output Clearing 2 ... count: 4
    ,,B12,A13 How to use the Resize helper method In the following example, let’s expand the array size from 4 to 6, then add two new numbers at index 4 and 5. The two newly added elements will remain null until the value is assigned. /// <summary>
    /// Outputs
    /// B14,A11,B12,A13
    /// Resizing 6 ... count: 6
    /// B14,A11,B12,A13,C01,C02
    /// </summary>
    public static void ResizeAndAdd() {
        string[] pallets = { "B14", "A11", "B12", "A13" };
    
        Console.WriteLine(string.Join(",", pallets));
    
        Array.Resize(ref pallets, 6);
        Console.WriteLine($"Resizing 6 ... count: {pallets.Length}");
    
        pallets[4] = "C01";
        pallets[5] = "C02";
    
        Console.WriteLine(string.Join(",", pallets));
    } Execute the code from the main method as follows #region Day 11 - Helper Methods  -  Array
    
    ArrayHelperMethods.ResizeAndAdd();
    
    #endregion Console Output B14,A11,B12,A13
    Resizing 6 ... count: 6
    B14,A11,B12,A13,C01,C02 Complete Code on GitHub GitHub — ssukhpinder/30DayChallenge.Net C# Programming🚀 Thank you for being a part of the C# community! Before you leave: If you’ve made it this far, please show your appreciation with a clap and follow the author! 👏️️ Follow us: | | | | | X LinkedIn Dev.to Hashnode Newsletter Tumblr Visit our other platforms: | | | | GitHub Instagram Tiktok Quora Daily.dev More content at C# Programming Also published . here

The 30-Day .NET Challenge Day 11: Helper Methods — Array

In 2017, a got tired of its job and committed . Then, in 2022, a , after interacting with LaMDA, the company's chatbot, that technology had become conscious. Recently, it was reported that in 2021, a Tesla software engineer was attacked by an uncontrolled robot. This is without considering the fear that machines will steal jobs, or the classic fiction that machines will take over the world. robot suicide in a water fountain Google engineer declared Although we don't see machines as replicants in Blade Runner, people are predisposed to anthropomorphizing or attributing human qualities to non-humans [1]. It's a way of being able to analyze a scenario and bring it into our understanding: we give names to our boats and tornadoes, we talk to our pets, and say that the pleasant feeling they give us is love. It's easier to understand a system that declares in the first person "I'm sorry, I don't know how to help you" than to accept that the model we're talking to may be nothing more than a stochastic parrot. [2] The anthropomorphized interaction, therefore, relates to the phenomenon of "illusion of agency", a psychological concept that refers to the tendency to attribute autonomous action or control to entities that, in reality, do not possess such capabilities. In other words, it's the mistaken perception that an agent (be it a person, an animal, or a machine) is acting of its own free will, when in fact its actions are being determined by external factors (in the computational case, development rules). In situations where AI systems make flawed decisions or actions, there is a tendency to see these errors as "choices" of the entity rather than results of its programming and design by humans, not least because it has been reported that the selfish bias of a human being that leads someone to see the cause and responsibility for a negative outcome as not attributable to themselves can be observed even in human-machine interactions [3]. This change in perception is dangerously inclined to absolve human creators, operators, and regulators of their responsibility, not as a matter of judicial regulation (which remains a gap and has challenges in its realization not only because of the complexity of the subject but because Artificial Intelligence is often understood only as machine learning and the premise is not properly structured. Do we need stricter regulation? Do we need to take more risks?), but on a techno-ethical issue. Let's take a more extreme but true event from 2023: a user who was sentimentally attached to a chatbot committed suicide after sharing his thoughts with the bot and r to "turn your words into actions", as well as other messages. Would a court conviction of the developers of this product cause another user to behave in the same way with another chatbot, assuming this one has been deactivated, if the content of the messages and the affection are the same? It's not just a legal situation. It's a social, psychological, and technological education issue. eceiving the response The concept of humanizing AI is ambiguous, and a significant challenge lies in the absence of a universally accepted approach that dictates the best practices for designing and utilizing AI. While an interface that mimics human behavior can be more approachable, no clear boundaries are defining what should or shouldn't be done in a product. Ultimately, user rejection becomes the only limiting factor, although potential harm may manifest before the interface becomes too unfamiliar. A user-friendly interface is a reduction in the complexity of the system that operates behind it. But as long as there is no education about how systems work, the user will not be able to think critically about what they use. This doesn't mean that everyone should become a programmer, but at least understand that the output on their screen comes from a path of data collection, model development, and design. There is a set of rules taking place. Since humanization is an almost unconscious act on the part of us users, let's at least limit it with a little knowledge. And it's not easy to avoid anthropomorphism when communicating about AI, especially considering the standard language of the industry, the media, and everyday life itself: machine , computer , generative . Perceptions of Artificial Intelligence can be influenced by the specific use of language. learning vision modelling How AI is presented has "concrete impacts", particularly on the way people distribute responsibility and recognition for the work done. When described merely as a tool in the hands of humans, it tends to attribute greater responsibility and merit to certain individuals - such as the person operating the code. On the other hand, if AI is characterized with human traits - such as the ability to create - then it is seen as deserving of greater credit and responsibility, like an agent with independent thought and mental capacity. [4] When we read news stories about incidents or atypical events involving Artificial Intelligence, we often come across these terms. Also, the attribution of "intelligence" means that more blame or credit for the outcome of a task was attributed to a robot with autonomous behavior than to a non-autonomous robot, even if the autonomous behavior did not directly contribute to the task. [3] These studies therefore suggest that humans can assign responsibility to a computer or robot based on the machines' anthropomorphised mental capacities. The humanization of machines not only shifts the distinction between the responsibility of the device and that of its human creator, but the attribution of intentions or consciousness to a machine at the same time blurs the boundaries of what constitutes true autonomy and consciousness. However, the difficulty in imputing humanity and sentience to a machine lies not only in the fact that Artificial Intelligence is not capable of having it and when it says, for example, that it feels fear, it is actually emulating what it has learned, repeating that phrase without any kind of essence behind it. Even today, there is a heated debate about how to define consciousness. Our consciousness, as humans. Our understanding of how the brain works is still quite limited. We have considerable knowledge about fundamental chemistry: the way neurons activate, and the transmission of chemical signals. We also have a good understanding of the main functions of various brain areas. However, we have very little knowledge about how these functions orchestrate us. To some extent, theoretical speculation has supplanted detailed neurophysiological studies of what  happens in the brain. But what about beyond that? [5] Why do we have this magical notion of ourselves? Why does the same experience affect us differently? Is the same feeling felt in the same way by all of us? If being a human is something that, although we experience it, we still don't have a full understanding of what it is as a whole, how can we say that a machine also experiences this complexity? By elevating machines to human capabilities, we diminish the special character of people. For the 2023 Jabuti Prize, one of the highest honors in Brazilian literature, the Brazilian Book Chamber (CBL) decided to disqualify Frankenstein, an edition of the 1818 classic, from the Best Illustration category, since the artist reported having used AI solutions to develop the art. Ironically, one of the books recognized by the Prize in the Non-Fiction category deals with the impact of Artificial Intelligence on human beings (“Humanamente digital: Inteligência artificial centrada no humano”, something like "Humanly Digital: Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence" in English, by Cassio Pantaleone). On the one hand, we recognize the intertwining of the human experience with machines. On the other hand, we still haven't managed to validate whether an algorithm used as an art tool can be considered a valid method of creation or not, even though the artistic process, even if carried out by machine learning, requires the action (and appreciation of beauty and aesthetics) of a human being. Machines don't steal jobs if they aren't used indiscriminately to do so. Machines don't kill unless they are used as weapons. Nor do machines suffer or empathize, although their texts emulate this since they have been trained with data from us, loaded with feelings that only we can truly feel. They are almost the modern version of the Golem myth. How can humans relate to non-human intelligence? Anthropomorphism is a valid answer, but not the only one. And when it is used, it cannot absolve us of the real responsibility for its consequences, whether appropriate or not: us. Artificial Intelligence is, in the end, a mirror of ourselves. And if we're afraid of where it's going, it's actually because we're afraid of the path we're going to create. REFERENCES [1] Epley, N., Waytz, A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2007). On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114(4), 864–886. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.864 [2] Shneiderman, B. & Muller, M. (2023) . On AI Antropomorphism https://medium.com/human-centered-ai/on-ai-anthropomorphism-abff4cecc5ae [3] Kawai, Y., Miyake, T., Park, J. et al. Anthropomorphism-based causal and responsibility attributions to robots. Sci Rep 13, 12234 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-39435-5 [4] Epstein, Z., Levine, S., Rand, D. G., & Rahwan, I. (2020). Who Gets Credit for AI-Generated Art? In iScience (Vol. 23, Issue 9, p. 101515). Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2020.101515 [5] Goff, P. (2023). Understanding Consciousness Goes Beyond Exploring Brain Chemistry. Scientific American https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/understanding-consciousness-goes-beyond-exploring-brain-chemistry/ The following prompt generated the image used in this article: “Create a man looking in a mirror, but the mirror is shaped like a robot.” Sofia × DALL·E

No, You Are Not Afraid of Artificial Intelligence. You’re Afraid of Other People

না, আপনি কৃত্রিম বুদ্ধিমত্তাকে ভয় পান না। আপনি অন্য লোকেদের ভয় পান

Nein, Sie haben keine Angst vor künstlicher Intelligenz. Du hast Angst vor anderen Menschen

No, no le tienes miedo a la inteligencia artificial. Tienes miedo de otras personas

Non, vous n'avez pas peur de l'intelligence artificielle. Vous avez peur des autres

नहीं, आप आर्टिफिशियल इंटेलिजेंस से नहीं डरते। आप अन्य लोगों से डरते हैं

いいえ、人工知能を恐れることはありません。他人が怖い

아니요, 당신은 인공지능을 두려워하지 않습니다. 당신은 다른 사람을 두려워합니다

Não, você não tem medo da inteligência artificial. Você tem medo de outras pessoas

Нет, вы не боитесь искусственного интеллекта. Вы боитесь других людей

Hayır, Yapay Zekadan Korkmuyorsunuz. Başkalarından Korkuyorsunuz

Không, bạn không sợ trí tuệ nhân tạo. Bạn sợ người khác

不，你并不害怕人工智能。你害怕别人

Simple bar chart based on an array in Python import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

x = np.array(['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E'])
y = np.array([50, 30, 70, 80, 60])

plt.bar(x, y, align='center', width=0.5, color='b', label='data')
plt.xlabel('X axis')
plt.ylabel('Y axis')
plt.title('Bar chart')
plt.legend()
plt.show() Stacked bar chart based on arrays in Python import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
x = np.array(['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E'])
y1 = np.array([50, 30, 70, 80, 60])
y2 = np.array([20, 40, 10, 50, 30])

plt.bar(x, y1, align='center', width=0.5, color='b', label='Series 1')
plt.bar(x, y2, bottom=y1, align='center', width=0.5, color='g', label='Series 2')
plt.xlabel('X axis')
plt.ylabel('Y axis')
plt.title('Stacked Bar Chart')
plt.legend()
plt.show() Grouped bar chart based on arrays in Python import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

# Prepare the data
N = 5
men_means = (20, 35, 30, 35, 27)
women_means = (25, 32, 34, 20, 25)
ind = np.arange(N)  # x-axis position
width = 0.35  # width of each bar

# Plot the bar chart
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
rects1 = ax.bar(ind, men_means, width, color='r')
rects2 = ax.bar(ind + width, women_means, width, color='y')

# Add labels, legend, and axis labels
ax.set_xticks(ind + width / 2)
ax.set_xticklabels(('G1', 'G2', 'G3', 'G4', 'G5'))
ax.legend((rects1[0], rects2[0]), ('Men', 'Women'))
ax.set_xlabel('Groups')
ax.set_ylabel('Scores')

# Display the plot
plt.show() Percent stacked bar chart based on arrays in Python import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np

# Prepare the data
x = ['Group 1', 'Group 2', 'Group 3', 'Group 4', 'Group 5']
y = np.array([[10, 20, 30],
              [20, 25, 30],
              [15, 30, 25],
              [25, 15, 20],
              [30, 20, 10]])

# calculate percentage
y_percent = y / np.sum(y, axis=1, keepdims=True) * 100

# Plot the chart
fig, ax = plt.subplots()
ax.bar(x, y_percent[:, 0], label='Series 1', color='r')
ax.bar(x, y_percent[:, 1], bottom=y_percent[:, 0], label='Series 2', color='g')
ax.bar(x, y_percent[:, 2], bottom=y_percent[:, 0] + y_percent[:, 1], label='Series 3', color='b')

# Display the plot
plt.show() Thank you for taking the time to explore data-related insights with me. I appreciate your engagement. If you find this information helpful, I invite you to follow me or connect with me on or (@Luca_DataTeam). You can also catch glimpses of my personal life on , Happy exploring!👋 LinkedIn X Instagram Also published . here

Four Types of Array Data-Based Bar Charts in Python

Do you love working with arrays in ? They are awesome for storing and managing multiple values in one variable. But sometimes, you may have a problem with duplicate objects in your array. This can mess up your code’s performance, memory, and logic. JavaScript Don’t worry; I have some solutions for you! Use a set() to get rid of duplicate objects in your array Use a map to filter out duplicate objects in your array Use Lodash to simplify the process of removing duplicate objects in your array In this blog, you will learn how to do all these things! Method 1: Using to remove duplicate set() The sets are awesome! is one of the . They let you store unique values of any kind. You can even put objects in them. How cool is that? To make a set from an array, use the new Set() non-primitive data types in JavaScript Set() Here’s an example of using Set() to remove duplicate numbers: const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3];
const uniqueNumbers = new Set(numbers);
console.log(uniqueNumbers); 
// Output: { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } Look at this! The set has no duplicates from the . How cool is that? You can turn the set into an array again with or the array Array.from() spread operator (…). Here’s how you do it: const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3];
const uniqueNumbers = new Set(numbers);
const arrayFromSet = Array.from(uniqueNumbers);
console.log(arrayFromSet); 
// Output: [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ]

const arrayFromSpread = [...uniqueNumbers];
console.log(arrayFromSpread); 
// Output: [ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ] Here’s a cool trick to get rid of duplicates in a JavaScript array. Make a set from the array and turn it back into an array. Like this: You might think you can use to remove duplicates from an array of objects. Let's try: Set() const colors = [
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 2, name: "Green", hexCode: '#00FF00' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
  { id: 1, name: "White", hexCode: '#000000' },
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
];
const uniqueColors = [...new Set(colors)];
console.log(uniqueColors);
/*
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 2, name: "Green", hexCode: '#00FF00' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
  { id: 1, name: "White", hexCode: '#000000' },
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
*/ But that won’t work. Why? Because doesn’t care about the properties of the objects. The only care about their references. That means two objects that look identical but have different references are not identical for . For example: Set() Set() set() const color1 = { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' };
const color2 = { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' };
console.log(color1 === color2);
// Output: false In the above code, and look the same, but they are not. They live in different places in the computer’s memory. So, thinks they are different, too, and keeps them both. color1 color2 Set() But don’t worry; there are other ways to remove objects that look the same. You can use an or . You will see this in detail in the next sections. map Lodash The advantages of this method are: It is simple and easy to use It is fast and efficient Work only with value types The disadvantages of this method are: It does not work with objects It does not allow you to specify a custom criterion for uniqueness Method 2: Remove duplicate objects from an array using a Map() A is like a table with two columns: one for and one for . You can use any value as a key or a value, even an object. To make a map from an array, you need a function that tells how to fill the table. The function takes an element and its position in the array and returns a pair of keys and values. For example: map() keys values const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3];
const mapFromNumbers = new Map(numbers.map((n, index) => [n, index]));
console.log(mapFromNumbers);
//  Output: Map { 1 => 5, 2 => 6, 3 => 7, 4 => 3, 5 => 4 } The map has the array’s values as keys and their last positions as values. You can make the map an array again with or Array.from() spread operator (…) For example: const numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3];
const mapFromNumbers = new Map(numbers.map((num, index) => [num, index]));
const arrayFromMap = Array.from(mapFromNumbers);
console.log(arrayFromMap); 
// Output: [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 2, 6 ], [ 3, 7 ], [ 4, 3 ], [ 5, 4 ] ]

const arrayFromSpread = [...mapFromNumbers];
console.log(arrayFromSpread); 
// Output: [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 2, 6 ], [ 3, 7 ], [ 4, 3 ], [ 5, 4 ] ] Here’s a cool trick to get rid of duplicates in a JavaScript array. You make a from the array and then turn it back into an array. Like this: map const colors = [
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 2, name: "Green", hexCode: '#00FF00' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
  { id: 1, name: "White", hexCode: '#000000' },
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
];

const mapFromColors = new Map(
  colors.map(c => [c.id, c])
);

const uniqueColors = [...mapFromColors.values()];
console.log(uniqueColors);
/* Output:
[ {"id":1,"name":"Red","hexCode":"#FF0000"},
  {"id":2,"name":"Green","hexCode":"#00FF00"},
  {"id":3,"name":"Blue","hexCode":"#0000FF"}
] */ The advantages of this method are: It is flexible and customizable. It allows you to specify a custom criterion for uniqueness, such as a property or a function. The disadvantages of this method are: It is more complex and verbose. It may not work with complex objects that have circular references or non-primitive keys. Method 3: Remove duplicate objects from an array using the Lodash library is awesome! It’s a JavaScript library that helps you do many things with data. You can use to manipulate arrays, objects, , numbers, and more. It’s easy to get in your project. You can use npm or a CDN to install and import it. Lodash Lodash JavaScript strings Lodash Here’s how to add the reference to the Loadsh library: // Using npm
npm install --save lodash
const _ = require("lodash");

// Using CDN
<script src="https://cdnjs.cloudflare.com/ajax/libs/lodash.js/4.17.21/lodash.min.js"></script> Do you want to remove duplicate objects from an array? You can use Lodash’s method. It’s easy and powerful. You just need to give it two things: the and the or the criterion. _.uniqBy() array property The property is a key of the object, like a string or a symbol. The criterion is a function that returns a value to compare. Here’s an example of how to remove duplicate objects from an array using Loadsh: const colors = [
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 2, name: "Green", hexCode: '#00FF00' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
  { id: 1, name: "White", hexCode: '#000000' },
  { id: 1, name: "Red", hexCode: '#FF0000' },
  { id: 3, name: "Blue", hexCode: '#0000FF' },
];

const uniqueColorsById = _.uniqBy(colors, "id");
console.log(uniqueColorsById);

/* Output:
[ {"id":1,"name":"Red","hexCode":"#FF0000"},
{"id":2,"name":"Green","hexCode":"#00FF00"},
{"id":3,"name":"Blue","hexCode":"#0000FF"}]
*/ The advantages of this method are: It is convenient and readable It provides many options and features for removing duplicates The disadvantages of this method are: It requires an external dependency It may not be compatible with older browsers or environments Best practices for working with arrays and objects in JavaScript Check the length and type using the JavaScript typeof keyword before doing anything with it. Use to declare your variables unless you need to change them. const Use clear and meaningful names for your variables and functions. End your statements with semicolons. Compare values with (`= `) strict equality operators ` and `! Test and verify your code with or other debugging tools. console.log() Conclusion You just learned a cool skill! You can now remove duplicate objects from an array in JavaScript. How awesome is that? There are different ways to do this. You learned three of them: using a set, a map, or Lodash. Each duplicate removal method has its pros and cons. If you want to remove duplicate value types from an array, you can Set() method. If you want to remove duplicate objects from an array, use Map() or Loadsh method. I hope you learned something new from this blog. I would love to hear your thoughts or questions in the comments. Also published . here

Mastering JavaScript Arrays: Eliminating Duplicate Objects

Hi, I’m Aaron Sankin, and I’m a reporter here at The Markup. Over the past year, I’ve focused on investigating and what you (other than shoot dirty looks at your modem, which doesn’t really care about your opinion). why the internet connection at your house is slow can do about it Tucked deep in the , signed by President Joe Biden in 2021, is a short provision giving the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) broad leeway to fundamentally reshape how America connects to the internet. Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act Under a section titled “Digital Discrimination,” the legislation tasks the FCC with adopting “rules to facilitate equal access to broadband internet access service, taking into account the issues of technical and economic feasibility presented by that objective, including … preventing digital discrimination of access based on income level, race, ethnicity, color, religion, or national origin.” The section itself is short—under 400 words—and relatively light on detail, leaving it largely up to the FCC to decide how much power it wants to grab for itself to close the digital divide. Various actors have rushed into that void of legislative ambiguity, forcefully advocating for their own agendas. On one side are advocacy groups and some local governments who hope the FCC will take the opportunity to aggressively hold internet service providers (ISPs) to account for what they see as generations of inequitable broadband infrastructure deployment across the country. Some propose levying fines on ISPs guilty of discrimination or, as the agency did when it approved a merger between Charter Communications and Time Warner Cable in 2016, companies build out high-speed infrastructure in new areas. mandating On the other side are ISPs, the industry groups representing them, and ideologically aligned pro-business think tanks. They want nothing more than for the FCC to merely supplement its historic light-touch regulation of the broadband industry with generous subsidies—that make investing in high-speed internet infrastructure in marginalized communities more beneficial to the companies’ bottom lines. The crux of this fight is over a concept called “disparate impact” and whether the FCC should use it to identify whether an ISP has engaged in discrimination. The idea behind disparate impact is that discrimination isn’t always explicit. So, if an institution’s policies have created a situation where certain protected groups experience markedly worse outcomes than others, this impact matters just as much as any intentionally biased practices. For example: A company’s CEO decides that people should always physically look up to their managers, so only people over 6 feet, 3 inches get promoted to managerial roles. As a result, the management staff is entirely male, since men tend to be taller on average. Did the company engage in gender discrimination? Under a disparate impact standard, yes. But, under a standard where intent prevails, this discrimination is a lot harder to prove, because the rules that resulted in a management team where everyone can dunk said nary a peep about gender. “From my point of view, disparate impact is really just discrimination through the back door,” said John Yinger, a professor of economics and public administration at Syracuse University, who has disparate impact and wrote a about discrimination in mortgage lending. studied book “If you have a system that doesn’t recognize and address disparate impact, you allow people to, either on purpose [or] by accident, engage in a lot of discrimination.” The problem, Yinger noted, is that to assess disparate impact, the first step is determining which allocation of a certain scarce set of resources—be it broadband access or corporate promotions—is fair, and then determine if different groups’ receipt of that resource violates that standard of fairness. Intentions Matter, or Do They? Consider an we published last year showing how a quartet of ISPs consistently gave the worst deals for internet service to households in low-income, less-White, and historically redlined neighborhoods in major cities across the country. investigation When we were reporting that story, we certainly were curious these disparities existed, but that was less important than the fact that we could prove they existed in the first place. why why Last year, when we reached out to CenturyLink, one of the companies we found consistently charging high prices for sluggish service in marginalized areas, spokesperson Mark Molzen insisted at the time that the company was committed to anti-racism. “While we can’t comment on behalf of other providers, we can say we do not enable services based on any consideration of race or ethnicity, and the methodology used for the report on our network is deeply flawed.” Molzen never pointed to any specific inaccuracies in our data collection or analysis. The “flaw” he identified was in an inference the company read into the story about its motives. Our October 2022 investigation showed absolutely zero evidence that CenturyLink had partitioned cities into geographic areas based on race and used that to determine where to deploy high-speed internet infrastructure. And, honestly, it would be pretty wild if it actually had. Nevertheless, we found that CenturyLink offered addresses in the least-White parts of Des Moines, Iowa, slow-speed internet service 19 percentage points more frequently than the Whitest parts of the city—and all for the same price. In Las Vegas, Nev., that gap was 31 percentage points. In Omaha, Neb., 33 percentage points. A comment within a June 2022 FCC with Lumen, CenturyLink’s parent company, mentioned the company’s expectations “to deploy fiber to approximately one million new locations in 2022 and around 1.5 to 2 million new locations in 2023.” digital discrimination proceeding However, there wasn’t any specificity regarding how many of these new fiber deployments would go to low-income or predominantly non-White areas. When it comes to the FCC’s responsibility, the question is whether the FCC will look at the levels of access that different racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups have to affordable, blazing-fast internet, find substantial inequality, and then do something about it. Or, as the telecom industry would prefer, will the agency only intervene after finding direct evidence of an ISP making inequitable decisions about where to deploy infrastructure explicitly based on characteristics like race or ethnicity? “ ” In Some Circumstances, It Can Be Profitable The legal theory behind disparate impact goes back to , a 1971 Supreme Court case about how a company required all employees to pass a pair of intelligence tests if they wanted to move into higher-paying roles. Black people were far less likely to pass those tests, which were unrelated to the jobs’ responsibilities. Griggs v. Duke Power Co. The court ruled that these tests—which the company just so happened to implement on the very day the 1964 Civil Rights Act—prohibited race-based employment discrimination, and were illegal due to the effect they had on Black employees’ career advancement. The use of disparate impact to identify discrimination grew in the ensuing decades and was finally into law in 1991. “Because individual motives may be difficult to prove directly, Congress has frequently permitted proof of only discriminatory impact as a means of overcoming discriminatory practices,” reads a U.S. Department of Justice on the subject. codified manual “The Supreme Court has, therefore, recognized that disparate impact liability under various civil rights laws ‘permits plaintiffs to counteract unconscious prejudices and disguised animus that escape easy classification as disparate treatment.’ ” During the administration of President Donald Trump, who famously settled a in the 1970s over his family’s real estate company’s practice of not renting properties to Black tenants, the Department of Housing and Urban Development dramatically the government’s ability to use disparate impact, but the rules were shortly after President Biden took office. lawsuit weakened reinstated While disparate impact has been used by the government to regulate employment and housing, it hasn’t yet been used to assess the role ISPs are playing in the digital divide. As a result, when the FCC went about implementing the digital discrimination rules mandated by Congress, the agency specifically that the public weigh in on whether the standard should be used and, if so, how. requested The responses the agency received on the issue largely fell into two categories. The telecom industry argued in favor of using as a metric, which holds that discrimination occurs when people are explicitly divided up by a protected category (like race) and then treated worse as a result. Digital inclusion advocacy groups argued that is the only feasible metric. disparate treatment disparate impact “Rational, profit-seeking actors will discriminate because, in some circumstances, it can be profitable to do so. Whether this is intentional or not is beside the point,” argued the National Digital Inclusion Alliance and Common Sense Media, two nonprofit advocacy groups, in one . comment “The point … is that discrimination occurs and will continue to occur unless providers’ incentives are changed.” The groups’ comment urges the FCC to look for disparate impact in a plethora of ISP practices ranging from the prices customers are charged for a service, and under what contract terms, to the actual speeds different areas receive and how companies prioritize network maintenance. “For decades, the disability community has noted that discrimination occurs unintentionally and often results from seemingly neutral policies,” the American Association of People with Disabilities in another comment. concurred “Too often, disabled people experience discrimination not because of malicious intent or explicit exclusion within programs or policies but because the disabled people were simply not considered in the first place.” The Greenlining Institute, a California-based nonprofit that for digital inclusion efforts, insisted in its that applying disparate impact to broadband would be consistent with how it has been used across the government for decades. advocates comment “Adoption of the disparate impact standard in the wake of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 allowed for a whole-of-government approach that targeted discrimination in public goods such as education and housing,” Greenlining asserted. “It would be consistent to apply this similar treatment to digital public infrastructure and services such as broadband internet.” The tenor of comments from folks who might theoretically be held accountable if their actions were found to have treated some communities worse than others was, unsurprisingly, markedly different. A primary industry worry is that requiring ISPs to constantly weigh equity concerns may dissuade them from deploying new infrastructure widely in the first place. “Adopting a disparate impact test would cause carriers to choose between prioritizing deployment based on closing the digital divide, as required by Congress, and paralyzing deployment for fear that a regular, common business decision may disproportionately affect a minority community,” asserted the Lincoln Network, a free market think tank, in its . comment Another industry argument is that Congress didn’t really mean for the FCC to use disparate impact to identify “discrimination of access based on income level, race, ethnicity, color, religion, or national origin.” Verizon, for example, that the phrase “based on” in the legislation specifically means that discrimination has to be a direct result of company decisions made because of protected demographic characteristics of a particular area. asserted For its part, AT&T asserted in its that, even if a disparate impact standard were applied, the broadband industry wouldn’t be found to have delivered less connectivity to historically marginalized areas. comment While there have been localized studies showing inequitable deployment in places like , , , and , the company said that the only way to accurately assess deployment would be to look at a comprehensive, national picture of everywhere every single ISP offers service. Cleveland Dallas Oakland Los Angeles AT&T to an analysis from former FCC chief economist Glenn Woroch that showed that “broadband availability rates for census-based ‘non-white’ households are higher than for white households and that availability rates for households above and below the poverty line are nearly identical.” pointed Woroch’s research relies on data from a broadband availability map produced by the FCC that is supposed to show what service ISPs offer across the country. While a footnote in Woroch’s comment insists his data source doesn’t skew the results, that map has been for inaccuracies, and a 2020 Princeton found that “the FCC’s data disproportionately overstates coverage in rural and minority communities.” widely criticized study The FCC released a last year designed to rectify those issues, but that map has its own set of and is still effectively in its beta testing phase. As a result, obtaining data accurate enough to meet the standards pushed for by AT&T remains a tall order. new map profound accuracy problems The battle over the FCC’s potential use of disparate impact hasn’t been limited to the public comment process. In a recent , The Wall Street Journal’s historically laissez-faire editorial board used the specter of disparate impact to lobby against Public Knowledge’s co-founder Gigi Sohn, whom Biden unsuccessfully nominated to lead the agency, but withdrew following telecom industry opposition. op-ed “Public Knowledge, the outfit that Ms. Sohn co-founded and led from 2001 to 2013, has urged the FCC to interpret its regulatory mandate broadly to micromanage broadband competition and development,” the editorial charged. Now would be the time to mention that The Markup does, in fact, have a pack of dogs in this fight. Our newsroom is based on the idea that if you evaluate the inputs and outputs of a big, complex technical system, you can identify serious problems in how it treats different groups without having to know the precise intentions of the people who developed it. The technology does not yet exist to do a regression controlling for the vagaries of the human heart. In March, Markup reporter and freelance data journalist used data analysis to determine that an algorithm for deciding which patients got life-saving liver transplants people in a handful of states, almost all of which were in the South and Midwest. The day after that story was published, the Department of Health and Human Services major reforms to that very system. Malena Carollo Ben Tanen systematically disadvantaged announced One thing I’m working on—along with my colleague, investigative data reporter —is a step-by-step guide showing everyday people how they can evaluate whether ISPs have left a digital divide in their towns. It should be dropping sometime in the next few weeks. Leon Yin We’re hoping that if people use the guide and find something interesting, they can tell the FCC about it. And, who knows, depending on how this disparate impact proceeding goes, maybe the agency will even do something about it. Sincerely, Aaron Sankin Investigative Reporter The Markup By Aaron Sankin Also published here Photo by on Annie Spratt Unsplash

Disparate Impact: Who's Afraid of It?

অসম প্রভাব: কে এটা ভয় পায়?

Unterschiedliche Auswirkungen: Wer hat Angst davor?

Impacto dispar: ¿quién le teme?

Impacts disparates : qui en a peur ?

असमान प्रभाव: इससे कौन डरता है?

異質な影響: 誰がそれを恐れるでしょうか?

이질적인 영향: 누가 그것을 두려워하는가?

Impacto díspar: quem tem medo disso?

Несопоставимое воздействие: кто этого боится?

Farklı Etki: Kim Korkar?

Tác động khác nhau: Ai sợ nó?

不同的影响：谁害怕它？

PARAG AGRAWAL VIJAYA GADDE, and NED SEGAL v. twitter Court Filing, retrieved on April 10, 2023 is part of . You can jump to any part in this filing . This is part 31 of 38. HackerNoon’s Legal PDF Series here EXHIBIT H - UNDERTAKING TO REPAY ADVANCEMENT OF EXPENSES Twitter, Inc. 1355 Market Street Suite 900 San Francisco, CA 94103 Attn: Chief Executive Officer; General Counsel/ Legal Department Re: Undertaking to Repay Advancement of Expenses This undertaking is being provided pursuant to that certain Director & Officer Indemnification Agreement, entered into on or about November 29, 2021, by and between Twitter, Inc., a Delaware corporation (the "Company"), and the undersigned as Indemnitee (the "Indemnification Agreement"). Capitalized terms not defined herein shall have the meanings ascribed in the Indemnification Agreement. I have become party to a putative class action securities lawsuit captioned Baker v. Twitter, Inc. et al., No. 2:22-cv-06525 (MCS) (C.D. Cal.) (the "Securities Class Action"). Additionally, I recently was contacted by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Division of Enforcement and the U.S. Department of Justice in connection with certain inquiries into the Company and into Elon Musk (the "Inquiries," and together with the Securities Class Action, the "Proceedings"). My involvement in the Proceedings is by reason of the fact that I formerly was an officer of the Company. By letter dated January 13, 2023, my counsel requested that Expenses incurred in the Proceedings on my behalf be advanced by the Company pursuant to Section 5 of the Indemnification Agreement. In connection with the request for advancement of Expenses, I hereby undertake to repay any amounts paid, advanced, or reimbursed by the Company for such Expense advances to the extent that it is ultimately determined that I am not entitled to indemnification under the Indemnification Agreement or otherwise. This undertaking shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the State of Delaware, without regard to the principles of conflicts of laws thereof. Sincerely, Continue Reading . Here About HackerNoon Legal PDF Series: We bring you the most important technical and insightful public domain court case filings. This court case 2023-0409 retrieved on October 4, 2023, from is part of the public domain. The court-created documents are works of the federal government, and under copyright law, are automatically placed in the public domain and may be shared without legal restriction. int.nyt.com

Parag Agrawal's Undertaking to Repay Advancement of Expenses

PARAG AGRAWAL VIJAYA GADDE, and NED SEGAL v. twitter Court Filing, retrieved on April 10, 2023 is part of . You can jump to any part in this filing . This is part 28 of 37. HackerNoon’s Legal PDF Series here EXHIBIT E - Via E - Mail and FedEx - January 13, 2022 Twitter, Inc. 1355 Market Street Suite 900 San Francisco, CA 94103 Attn: Chief Executive Officer; General Counsel Legal Department Re: Demand for Indemnification and Advancement We write on behalf of Parag Agrawal, former Chief Executive Officer of Twitter, Inc. (the “Company”). Pursuant to Article IX of the Company's Bylaws dated as of February 14, 2022, the Director & Officer Indemnification Agreement entered into by the Company and Mr. Agrawal on or about November 29, 2021 (the Agreement), and Section 145 of the Delaware General Corporation Law, we hereby provide notice of Mr. Agrawal's rights to indemnification and demand advancement of expenses (including attorneys' fees) incurred in connection with certain Proceedings, as defined herein. As you know, Mr. Agrawal is a former officer of the Company. On or about September 13, 2022, Mr. Agrawal was named as a defendant in a putative class action securities lawsuit captioned No. 2 :22-cv-06525 (MCS) (C.D. Cal.) (the “Securities Class Action”). Baker v. Twitter, Inc. et al., Additionally, Mr. Agrawal has been contacted by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission Division of Enforcement and the U.S. Department of Justice in connection with certain inquiries into the Company and into Elon Musk (the Inquiries, and together with the Securities Class Action, the Proceedings). Mr. Agrawal's involvement in the Proceedings unquestionably is by reason of the fact that Mr. Agrawal was formerly an officer of the Company. Mr. Agrawal has retained Sidley Austin LLP (“Sidley”) to represent him in connection with the Proceedings.[1] Accordingly, we request that the Company advance to Mr. Agrawal as they become due all expenses and legal fees, including attorneys fees, incurred in connection with the Proceedings prior to the final disposition of the Proceedings, as provided for in Section 5 of the Agreement. Enclosed herewith is an undertaking by Mr. Agrawal to repay any amounts advanced if ultimately it is determined that he is not entitled to be indemnified. If there is any basis on which the Company anticipates denying indemnification of Mr. Agrawal in regards to this matter, in whole or in part, please promptly state those objections in writing. Otherwise, please advise to whom invoices should be directed. This letter does not waive any rights or remedies that Mr. Agrawal may have under current or past practices, agreements, or the law, including those that are not specifically addressed herein. Please respond to this letter to me at the address above, or by email at dlanderson@sidley.com Very truly yours, David L. Anderson cc: Mary Hansbury, Global Head of employment Law, Twitter Katherine L. Martin, Senior Legal Counsel, Twitter Katherine Martin, Wilson Sonsini Goodrich And Rosati PC sop-twitter@twitter.com [1] Mr. Agrawal's current counsel of record in the Securities Class Action will withdraw and Sidley will take over that representation. Continue Reading . Here About HackerNoon Legal PDF Series: We bring you the most important technical and insightful public domain court case filings. This court case 2023-0409 retrieved on October 4, 2023, from is part of the public domain. The court-created documents are works of the federal government, and under copyright law, are automatically placed in the public domain and may be shared without legal restriction. int.nyt.com

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