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A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here . THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA Throughout the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, there was a steady drift of Mongolian peoples westward. The Huns of Attila were merely precursors of this advance, which led at last to the establishment of Mongolian peoples in Finland, Esthonia, Hungary and Bulgaria, where their descendants, speaking languages akin to Turkish, survive to this day. The Mongolian nomads were, in fact, playing a role towards the Aryanized civilizations of Europe and Persia and India that the Aryans had played to the Ægean and Semitic civilizations ten or fifteen centuries before. In Central Asia the Turkish peoples had taken root in what is now Western Turkestan, and Persia already employed many Turkish officials and Turkish mercenaries. The Parthians had gone out of history, absorbed into the general population of Persia. There were no more Aryan nomads in the history of Central Asia; Mongolian people had replaced them. The Turks became masters of Asia from China to the Caspian. The same great pestilence at the end of the second century A.D. that had shattered the Roman Empire had overthrown the Han dynasty in China. Then came a period of division and of Hunnish conquests from which China arose refreshed, more rapidly and more completely than Europe was destined to do. Before the end of the sixth century China was reunited under the Suy dynasty, and this by the time of Heraclius gave place to the Tang dynasty, whose reign marks another great period of prosperity for China. CHINESE EARTHENWARE ART OF THE TANG DYNASTY, 616-906 Specimens in glazed earthenware, in brown, green and buff, discovered in tombs in China (In the Victoria and Albert Museum) Throughout the seventh, eighth and ninth centuries China was the most secure and civilized country in the world. The Han dynasty had extended her boundaries in the north; the Suy and Tang dynasties now spread her civilization to the south, and China began to assume the proportions she has to-day. In Central Asia indeed she reached much further, extending at last, through tributary Turkish tribes, to Persia and the Caspian Sea. The new China that had arisen was a very different land from the old China of the Hans. A new and more vigorous literary school appeared, there was a great poetic revival; Buddhism had revolutionized philosophical and religious thought. There were great advances in artistic work, in technical skill and in all the amenities of life. Tea was first used, paper manufactured and wood-block printing began. Millions of people indeed were leading orderly, graceful and kindly lives in China during these centuries when the attenuated populations of Europe and Western Asia were living either in hovels, small walled cities or grim robber fortresses. While the mind of the west was black with theological obsessions, the mind of China was open and tolerant and enquiring. One of the earliest monarchs of the Tang dynasty was Tai- tsung, who began to reign in 627, the year of the victory of Heraclius at Nineveh. He received an embassy from Heraclius, who was probably seeking an ally in the rear of Persia. From Persia itself came a party of Christian missionaries (635). They were allowed to explain their creed to Tai-tsung and he examined a Chinese translation of their Scriptures. He pronounced this strange religion acceptable, and gave permission for the foundation of a church and monastery. To this monarch also (in 628) came messengers from Muhammad. They came to Canton on a trading ship. They had sailed the whole way from Arabia along the Indian coasts. Unlike Heraclius and Kavadh, Tai-Tsung gave these envoys a courteous hearing. He expressed his interest in their theological ideas and assisted them to build a mosque in Canton, a mosque which survives, it is said, to this day, the oldest mosque in the world. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. H. G. Wells (2011). A Short History of the World. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/11870/11870-h/11870-h.htm This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html .

THE DYNASTIES OF SUY AND TANG IN CHINA

A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here . RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE The soul of man under that Latin and Greek empire of the first two centuries of the Christian era was a worried and frustrated soul. Compulsion and cruelty reigned; there were pride and display but little honour; little serenity or steadfast happiness. The unfortunate were despised and wretched; the fortunate were insecure and feverishly eager for gratifications. In a great number of cities life centred on the red excitement of the arena, where men and beasts fought and were tormented and slain. Amphitheatres are the most characteristic of Roman ruins. Life went on in that key. The uneasiness of men’s hearts manifested itself in profound religious unrest. From the days when the Aryan hordes first broke in upon the ancient civilizations, it was inevitable that the old gods of the temples and priesthoods should suffer great adaptations or disappear. In the course of hundreds of generations the agricultural peoples of the brunette civilizations had shaped their lives and thoughts to the temple-centred life. Observances and the fear of disturbed routines, sacrifices and mysteries, dominated their minds. Their gods seem monstrous and illogical to our modern minds because we belong to an Aryanized world, but to these older peoples these deities had the immediate conviction and vividness of things seen in an intense dream. The conquest of one city state by another in Sumeria or early Egypt meant a change or a renaming of gods or goddesses, but left the shape and spirit of the worship intact. There was no change in its general character. The figures in the dream changed, but the dream went on and it was the same sort of dream. And the early Semitic conquerors were sufficiently akin in spirit to the Sumerians to take over the religion of the Mesopotamian civilization they subjugated without any profound alteration. Egypt was never indeed subjugated to the extent of a religious revolution. Under the Ptolemies and under the Cæsars, her temples and altars and priesthoods remained essentially Egyptian. So long as conquests went on between people of similar social and religious habits it was possible to get over the clash between the god of this temple and region and the god of that by a process of grouping or assimilation. If the two gods were alike in character they were identified. It was really the same god under another name, said the priests and the people. This fusion of gods is called theocrasia; and the age of the great conquests of the thousand years B.C. was an age of theocrasia. Over wide areas the local gods were displaced by, or rather they were swallowed up in, a general god. So that when at last Hebrew prophets in Babylon proclaimed one God of Righteousness in all the earth men’s minds were fully prepared for that idea. But often the gods were too dissimilar for such an assimilation, and then they were grouped together in some plausible relationship. A female god - and the Ægean world before the coming of the Greek was much addicted to Mother Gods—would be married to a male god, and an animal god or a star god would be humanized and the animal or astronomical aspect, the serpent or the sun or the star, made into an ornament or a symbol. Or the god of a defeated people would become a malignant antagonist to the brighter gods. The history of theology is full of such adaptations, compromises and rationalizations of once local gods. As Egypt developed from city states into one united kingdom there was much of this theocrasia. The chief god so to speak was Osiris, a sacrificial harvest god of whom Pharaoh was supposed to be the earthly incarnation. Osiris was represented as repeatedly dying and rising again; he was not only the seed and the harvest but also by a natural extension of thought the means of human immortality. Among his symbols was the wide-winged scarabeus beetle which buries its eggs to rise again, and also the effulgent sun which sets to rise. Later on he was to be identified with Apis, the sacred bull. Associated with him was the goddess Isis. Isis was also Hathor, a cow-goddess, and the crescent moon and the Star of the sea. Osiris dies and she bears a child, Horus, who is also a hawk-god and the dawn, and who grows to become Osiris again. The effigies of Isis represent her as bearing the infant Horus in her arms and standing on the crescent moon. These are not logical relationships, but they were devised by the human mind before the development of hard and systematic thinking and they have a dream-like coherence. Beneath this triple group there are other and darker Egyptian gods, bad gods, the dog-headed Anubis, black night and the like, devourers, tempters, enemies of god and man. MITHRAS SACRIFICING A BULL, ROMAN (In the British Museum) Every religious system does in the course of time fit itself to the shape of the human soul, and there can be no doubt that out of these illogical and even uncouth symbols, Egyptian people were able to fashion for themselves ways of genuine devotion and consolation. The desire for immortality was very strong in the Egyptian mind, and the religious life of Egypt turned on that desire. The Egyptian religion was an immortality religion as no other religion had ever been. As Egypt went down under foreign conquerors and the Egyptian gods ceased to have any satisfactory political significance, this craving for a life of compensations here-after, intensified. ISIS AND HORUS After the Greek conquest, the new city of Alexandria became the centre of Egyptian religious life, and indeed of the religious life of the whole Hellenic world. A great temple, the Serapeum, was set up by Ptolemy I at which a sort of trinity of gods was worshipped. These were Serapis (who was Osiris-Apis rechristened), Isis and Horus. These were not regarded as separate gods but as three aspects of one god, and Serapis was identified with the Greek Zeus, the Roman Jupiter and the Persian sun-god. This worship spread wherever the Hellenic influence extended, even into North India and Western China. The idea of immortality, an immortality of compensations and consolation, was eagerly received by a world in which the common life was hopelessly wretched. Serapis was called “the saviour of souls.” “After death,” said the hymns of that time, “we are still in the care of his providence.” Isis attracted many devotees. Her images stood in her temples, as Queen of Heaven, bearing the infant Horus in her arms. Candles were burnt before her, votive offerings were made to her, shaven priests consecrated to celibacy waited on her altar. The rise of the Roman empire opened the western European world to this growing cult. The temples of Serapis-Isis, the chanting of the priests and the hope of immortal life, followed the Roman standards to Scotland and Holland. But there were many rivals to the Serapis-Isis religion. Prominent among these was Mithraism. This was a religion of Persian origin, and it centred upon some now forgotten mysteries about Mithras sacrificing a sacred and benevolent bull. Here we seem to have something more primordial than the complicated and sophisticated Serapis-Isis beliefs. We are carried back directly to the blood sacrifices of the heliolithic stage in human culture. The bull upon the Mithraic monuments always bleeds copiously from a wound in its side, and from this blood springs new life. The votary to Mithraism actually bathed in the blood of the sacrificial bull. At his initiation he went beneath a scaffolding upon which a bull was killed so that the blood could actually run down on him. Both these religions, and the same is true of many other of the numerous parallel cults that sought the allegiance of the slaves and citizens under the earlier Roman emperors, are personal religions. They aim at personal salvation and personal immortality. The older religions were not personal like that; they were social. The older fashion of divinity was god or goddess of the city first or of the state, and only secondarily of the individual. The sacrifices were a public and not a private function. They concerned collective practical needs in this world in which we live. But the Greeks first and now the Romans had pushed religion out of politics. Guided by the Egyptian tradition religion had retreated to the other world. BUST OF THE EMPEROR COMMODUS, A.D. 180-192 Represented as the God Mithras, Roman, Circa A.D. 190 (In the British Museum) These new private immortality religions took all the heart and emotion out of the old state religions, but they did not actually replace them. A typical city under the earlier Roman emperors would have a number of temples to all sorts of gods. There might be a temple to Jupiter of the Capitol, the great god of Rome, and there would probably be one to the reigning Cæsar. For the Cæsars had learnt from the Pharaohs the possibility of being gods. In such temples a cold and stately political worship went on; one would go and make an offering and burn a pinch of incense to show one’s loyalty. But it would be to the temple of Isis, the dear Queen of Heaven, one would go with the burthen of one’s private troubles for advice and relief. There might be local and eccentric gods. Seville, for example, long affected the worship of the old Carthaginian Venus. In a cave or an underground temple there would certainly be an altar to Mithras, attended by legionaries and slaves. And probably also there would be a synagogue where the Jews gathered to read their Bible and uphold their faith in the unseen God of all the Earth. Sometimes there would be trouble with the Jews about the political side of the state religion. They held that their God was a jealous God intolerant of idolatry, and they would refuse to take part in the public sacrifices to Cæsar. They would not even salute the Roman standards for fear of idolatry. In the East long before the time of Buddha there had been ascetics, men and women who gave up most of the delights of life, who repudiated marriage and property and sought spiritual powers and an escape from the stresses and mortifications of the world in abstinence, pain and solitude. Buddha himself set his face against ascetic extravagances, but many of his disciples followed a monkish life of great severity. Obscure Greek cults practised similar disciplines even to the extent of self-mutilation. Asceticism appeared in the Jewish communities of Judea and Alexandria also in the first century B.C. Communities of men abandoned the world and gave themselves to austerities and mystical contemplation. Such was the sect of the Essenes. Throughout the first and second centuries A.D. there was an almost world-wide resort to such repudiations of life, a universal search for “salvation” from the distresses of the time. The old sense of an established order, the old confidence in priest and temple and law and custom, had gone. Amidst the prevailing slavery, cruelty, fear, anxiety, waste, display and hectic self-indulgence, went this epidemic of self- disgust and mental insecurity, this agonized search for peace even at the price of renunciation and voluntary suffering. This it was that filled the Serapeum with weeping penitents and brought the converts into the gloom and gore of the Mithraic cave. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. H. G. Wells (2011). A Short History of the World. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/11870/11870-h/11870-h.htm This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html .

RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPIRE

A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here . ROME COMES INTO HISTORY ROME COMES INTO HISTORY The reader will note a general similarity in the history of all these civilizations in spite of the effectual separation caused by the great barriers of the Indian north-west frontier and of the mountain masses of Central Asia and further India. First for thousands of years the heliolithic culture spread over all the warm and fertile river valleys of the old world and developed a temple system and priest rulers about its sacrificial traditions. Apparently its first makers were always those brunette peoples we have spoken of as the central race of mankind. Then the nomads came in from the regions of seasonal grass and seasonal migrations and superposed their own characteristics and often their own language on the primitive civilization. They subjugated and stimulated it, and were stimulated to fresh developments and made it here one thing and here another. In Mesopotamia it was the Elamite and then the Semite, and at last the Nordic Medes and Persians and the Greeks who supplied the ferment; over the region of the Ægean peoples it was the Greeks; in India it was the Aryan-speakers; in Egypt there was a thinner infusion of conquerors into a more intensely saturated priestly civilization; in China, the Hun conquered and was absorbed and was followed by fresh Huns. China was Mongolized just as Greece and North India were Aryanized and Mesopotamia Semitized and Aryanized. Everywhere the nomads destroyed much, but everywhere they brought in a new spirit of free enquiry and moral innovation. They questioned the beliefs of immemorial ages. They let daylight into the temples. They set up kings who were neither priests nor gods but mere leaders among their captains and companions. THE DYING GAUL The statue in the National Museum, Rome, depicting a Gaul stabbing himself, after killing his wife, in the presence of his enemies Photo: Anderson In the centuries following the sixth century B.C. we find everywhere a great breaking down of ancient traditions and a new spirit of moral and intellectual enquiry awake, a spirit never more to be altogether stilled in the great progressive movement of mankind. We find reading and writing becoming common and accessible accomplishments among the ruling and prosperous minority; they were no longer the jealously guarded secret of the priests. Travel is increasing and transport growing easier by reason of horses and roads. A new and easy device to facilitate trade has been found in coined money. Let us now transfer our attention back from China in the extreme east of the old world to the western half of the Mediterranean. Here we have to note the appearance of a city which was destined to play at last a very great part indeed in human affairs, Rome. Hitherto we have told very little about Italy in our story. It was before 1000 B.C. a land of mountain and forest and thinly populated. Aryan-speaking tribes had pressed down this peninsula and formed little towns and cities, and the southern extremity was studded with Greek settlements. The noble ruins of Pæstum preserve for us to this day something of the dignity and splendour of these early Greek establishments. A non-Aryan people, probably akin to the Ægean peoples, the Etruscans, had established themselves in the central part of the peninsula. They had reversed the usual process by subjugating various Aryan tribes. Rome, when it comes into the light of history, is a little trading city at a ford on the Tiber, with a Latin-speaking population ruled over by Etruscan kings. The old chronologies gave 753 B.C. as the date of the founding of Rome, half a century later than the founding of the great Phœnician city of Carthage and twenty-three years after the first Olympiad. Etruscan tombs of a much earlier date than 753 B.C. have, however, been excavated in the Roman Forum. In that red-letter century, the sixth century B.C., the Etruscan kings were expelled (510 B.C.) and Rome became an aristocratic republic with a lordly class of “patrician” families dominating a commonalty of “plebeians.” Except that it spoke Latin it was not unlike many aristocratic Greek republics. For some centuries the internal history of Rome was the story of a long and obstinate struggle for freedom and a share in the government on the part of the plebeians. It would not be difficult to find Greek parallels to this conflict, which the Greeks would have called a conflict of aristocracy with democracy. In the end the plebeians broke down most of the exclusive barriers of the old families and established a working equality with them. They destroyed the old exclusiveness, and made it possible and acceptable for Rome to extend her citizenship by the inclusion of more and more “outsiders.” For while she still struggled at home, she was extending her power abroad. REMAINS OF THE ANCIENT ROMAN CISTERNS AT CARTHAGE Photo: Underwood & Underwood The extension of Roman power began in the fifth century B.C. Until that time they had waged war, and generally unsuccessful war, with the Etruscans. There was an Etruscan fort, Veii, only a few miles from Rome which the Romans had never been able to capture. In 474 B.C., however, a great misfortune came to the Etruscans. Their fleet was destroyed by the Greeks of Syracuse in Sicily. At the same time a wave of Nordic invaders came down upon them from the north, the Gauls. Caught between Roman and Gaul, the Etruscans fell—and disappear from history. Veii was captured by the Romans, The Gauls came through to Rome and sacked the city (390 B.C.A.D.) but could not capture the Capitol. An attempted night surprise was betrayed by the cackling of some geese, and finally the invaders were bought off and retired to the north of Italy again. The Gaulish raid seems to have invigorated rather than weakened Rome. The Romans conquered and assimilated the Etruscans, and extended their power over all central Italy from the Arno to Naples. To this they had reached within a few years of 300 B.C. Their conquests in Italy were going on simultaneously with the growth of Philip’s power in Macedonia and Greece, and the tremendous raid of Alexander to Egypt and the Indus. The Romans had become notable people in the civilized world to the east of them by the break-up of Alexander’s empire. To the north of the Roman power were the Gauls; to the south of them were the Greek settlements of Magna Græcia, that is to say of Sicily and of the toe and heel of Italy. The Gauls were a hardy, warlike people and the Romans held that boundary by a line of forts and fortified settlements. The Greek cities in the south headed by Tarentum (now Taranto) and by Syracuse in Sicily, did not so much threaten as fear the Romans. They looked about for some help against these new conquerors. We have already told how the empire of Alexander fell to pieces and was divided among his generals and companions. Among these adventurers was a kinsman of Alexander’s named Pyrrhus, who established himself in Epirus, which is across the Adriatic Sea over against the heel of Italy. It was his ambition to play the part of Philip of Macedonia to Magna Græcia, and to become protector and master-general of Tarentum, Syracuse and the rest of that part of the world. He had what was then it very efficient modern army; he had an infantry phalanx, cavalry from Thessaly—which was now quite as good as the original Macedonian cavalry—and twenty fighting elephants; he invaded Italy and routed the Romans in two considerable battles, Heraclea (280 B.C.) and Ausculum (279 B.C.), and having driven them north, he turned his attention to the subjugation of Sicily. But this brought against him a more formidable enemy than were the Romans at that time, the Phœnician trading city of Carthage, which was probably then the greatest city in the world. Sicily was too near Carthage for a new Alexander to be welcome there, and Carthage was mindful of the fate that had befallen her mother city Tyre half a century before. So she sent a fleet to encourage or compel Rome to continue the struggle, and she cut the overseas communications of Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus found himself freshly assailed by the Romans, and suffered a disastrous repulse in an attack he had made upon their camp at Beneventum between Naples and Rome. And suddenly came news that recalled him to Epirus. The Gauls were raiding south. But this time they were not raiding down into Italy; the Roman frontier, fortified and guarded, had become too formidable for them. They were raiding down through Illyria (which is now Serbia and Albania) to Macedonia and Epirus. Repulsed by the Romans, endangered at sea by the Carthaginians, and threatened at home by the Gauls, Pyrrhus abandoned his dream of conquest and went home (275 B.C.), and the power of Rome was extended to the Straits of Messina. On the Sicilian side of the Straits was the Greek city of Messina, and this presently fell into the hands of a gang of pirates. The Carthaginians, who were already practically overlords of Sicily and allies of Syracuse, suppressed these pirates (270 B.C.) and put in a Carthaginian garrison there. The pirates appealed to Rome and Rome listened to their complaint. And so across the Straits of Messina the great trading power of Carthage and this new conquering people, the Romans, found themselves in antagonism, face to face. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. H. G. Wells (2011). A Short History of the World. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/11870/11870-h/11870-h.htm This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html .

ROME COMES INTO HISTORY

A Short History of the World, by H. G. Wells, is part of the HackerNoon Books Series. You can jump to any chapter in this book here . THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS Four thousand years ago, that is to say about 2000 B.C., central and south-eastern Europe and central Asia were probably warmer, moister and better wooded than they are now. In these regions of the earth wandered a group of tribes mainly of the fair and blue-eyed Nordic race, sufficiently in touch with one another to speak merely variations of one common language from the Rhine to the Caspian Sea. At that time they may not have been a very numerous people, and their existence was unsuspected by the Babylonians to whom Hammurabi was giving laws, or by the already ancient and cultivated land of Egypt which was tasting in those days for the first time the bitterness of foreign conquest. These Nordic people were destined to play a very important part indeed in the world’s history. They were a people of the parklands and the forest clearings; they had no horses at first but they had cattle; when they wandered they put their tents and other gear on rough ox waggons; when they settled for a time they may have made huts of wattle and mud. They burnt their important dead; they did not bury them ceremoniously as the brunette peoples did. They put the ashes of their greater leaders in urns and then made a great circular mound about them. These mounds are the “round barrows” that occur all over north Europe. The brunette people, their predecessors, did not burn their dead but buried them in a sitting position in elongated mounds; the “long barrows.” The Aryans raised crops of wheat, ploughing with oxen, but they did not settle down by their crops; they would reap and move on. They had bronze, and somewhen about 1500 B.C. they acquired iron. They may have been the discoverers of iron smelting. And somewhen vaguely about that time they also got the horse—which to begin with they used only for draught purposes. Their social life did not centre upon a temple like that of the more settled people round the Mediterranean, and their chief men were leaders rather than priests. They had an aristocratic social order rather than a divine and regal order; from a very early stage they distinguished certain families as leaderly and noble. A BEAUTIFUL ARCHAIC AMPHORA Compare the horses and other animals with the Altamira drawing on p. 54, and also with the Greek frieze, p. 140 They were a very vocal people. They enlivened their wanderings by feasts, at which there was much drunkenness and at which a special sort of man, the bards, would sing and recite. They had no writing until they had come into contact with civilization, and the memories of these bards were their living literature. This use of recited language as an entertainment did much to make it a fine and beautiful instrument of expression, and to that no doubt the subsequent predominance of the languages derived from Aryan is, in part, to be ascribed. Every Aryan people had its legendary history crystallized in bardic recitations, epics, sagas and vedas, as they were variously called. The social life of these people centred about the households of their leading men. The hall of the chief where they settled for a time was often a very capacious timber building. There were no doubt huts for herds and outlying farm buildings; but with most of the Aryan peoples this hall was the general centre, everyone went there to feast and hear the bards and take part in games and discussions. Cowsheds and stabling surrounded it. The chief and his wife and so forth would sleep on a dais or in an upper gallery; the commoner sort slept about anywhere, as people still do in Indian households. Except for weapons, ornaments, tools and suchlike personal possessions there was a sort of patriarchal communism in the tribe. The chief owned the cattle and grazing lands in the common interest; forest and rivers were the wild. This was the fashion of the people who were increasing and multiplying over the great spaces of central Europe and west central Asia during the growth of the great civilization of Mesopotamia and the Nile, and whom we find pressing upon the heliolithic peoples everywhere in the second millennium before Christ. They were coming into France and Britain and into Spain. They pushed westward in two waves. The first of these people who reached Britain and Ireland were armed with bronze weapons. They exterminated or subjugated the people who had made the great stone monuments of Carnac in Brittany and Stonehenge and Avebury in England. They reached Ireland. They are called the Goidelic Celts. The second wave of a closely kindred people, perhaps intermixed with other racial elements, brought iron with it into Great Britain, and is known as the wave of Brythonic Celts. From them the Welsh derive their language. THE MOUND OF NIPPUR The site of a city which recent excavations have proved to date from at least as early as 5000 B.C., and probably 1000 years earlier Photo: Underwood & Underwood Kindred Celtic peoples were pressing southward into Spain and coming into contact not only with the heliolithic Basque people who still occupied the country but with the Semitic Phœnician colonies of the sea coast. A closely allied series of tribes, the Italians, were making their way down the still wild and wooded Italian peninsula. They did not always conquer. In the eighth century B.C. Rome appears in history, a trading town on the Tiber, inhabited by Aryan Latins but under the rule of Etruscan nobles and kings. At the other extremity of the Aryan range there was a similar progress southward of similar tribes. Aryan peoples, speaking Sanskrit, had come down through the western passes into North India long before 1000 B.C. There they came into contact with a primordial brunette civilization, the Dravidian civilization, and learnt much from it. Other Aryan tribes seem to have spread over the mountain masses of Central Asia far to the east of the present range of such peoples. In Eastern Turkestan there are still fair, blue-eyed Nordic tribes, but now they speak Mongolian tongues. Between the Black and Caspian Seas the ancient Hittites had been submerged and “Aryanized” by the Armenians before 1000 B.C., and the Assyrians and Babylonians were already aware of a new and formidable fighting barbarism on the north-eastern frontiers, a group of tribes amidst which the Scythians, the Medes and the Persians remain as outstanding names. But it was through the Balkan peninsula that Aryan tribes made their first heavy thrust into the heart of the old-world civilization. They were already coming southward and crossing into Asia Minor many centuries before 1000 B.C. First came a group of tribes of whom the Phrygians were the most conspicuous, and then in succession the Æolic, the Ionic and the Dorian Greeks. By 1000 B.C. they had wiped out the ancient Ægean civilization both in the mainland of Greece and in most of the Greek islands; the cities of Mycenæ and Tiryns were obliterated and Cnossos was nearly forgotten. The Greeks had taken to the sea before 1000 A.D., they had settled in Crete and Rhodes, and they were founding colonies in Sicily and the south of Italy after the fashion of the Phœnician trading cities that were dotted along the Mediterranean coasts. So it was, while Tiglath Pileser III and Sargon II and Sardanapalus were ruling in Assyria and fighting with Babylonia and Syria and Egypt, the Aryan peoples were learning the methods of civilization and making it over for their own purposes in Italy and Greece and north Persia. The theme of history from the ninth century B.C. A.D. onward for six centuries is the story of how these Aryan peoples grew to power and enterprise and how at last they subjugated the whole Ancient World, Semitic, Ægean and Egyptian alike. In form the Aryan peoples were altogether victorious; but the struggle of Aryan, Semitic and Egyptian ideas and methods was continued long after the sceptre was in Aryan hands. It is indeed a struggle that goes on through all the rest of history and still in a manner continues to this day. About HackerNoon Book Series: We bring you the most important technical, scientific, and insightful public domain books. This book is part of the public domain. H. G. Wells (2011). A Short History of the World. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved October 2022, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/11870/11870-h/11870-h.htm This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org , located at https://www.gutenberg.org/policy/license.html .

THE PRIMITIVE ARYANS

FROM TIBERIUS GRACCHUS TO THE GOD EMPEROR IN ROME

THE TWO WESTERN REPUBLICS

THE HEBREW SCRIPTURES AND THE PROPHETS

THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS

The United Nations has acknowledged the importance of good governance and its’ links between peace and development. It has actively paved the way as an international organization to improve upon exisiting mechainsms through disruptive technologies. The UN has been a key player in adopting and implementing , but can blockchain be applied to further principles of good governance around the world? blockchain-based projects to promote the Sustainable Development Goals Let's find out! What is Good Governance? Although there is no one clear definition of good governance, the United Nations Development Progamme (UNDP) is a good starting point. In 1997, the UNDP developed and identified the following which provides a cursory framework for how governments should operate: eight characteristics of Good Governance – All citizens (both men and women) having the right to an equal voice in decision making through legitimate intermediate institutions . This level of participation is built on freedom of association and speech. Participation – the existence of legal frameworks that are fair and impartially forced, specifically the laws on human rights. Rule of Law – based on the free flow of information. This is where processes, institutions and information are directly accessible to those concerned, with enough information provided to understand and monitor them. Transparency – Institutions and Government agencies attempted to serve all stakeholders. Responsiveness – acknowledging differing interests and attempts to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interests of the group and (where possible), on policies and procedures. Consensus Orientation – all citizens regardless of gender, have opportunities to maintain their well-being. Equity – allows both processes and institutions produce results that meet needs while making the best use of resources. Effectiveness and efficiency – where decision makers in government, the private sector, and civil society organizations are accountable to the public as well as to institutional stakeholders. Accountability The UN as an international organization attempts to promote good governance models through a 2-pronged approach: through its organs such as UNDP but also in collaboration with civil society and Member States. According to , establishing Good Governance is key to unpacking the relationships between governance structures, security and international development. The principle of Good Governance is especially important in progressing the Sustainable Development Goals. Conor Seyle calls upon international governments, civil society, and UN institutions to utilize principles of good governance to uphold peace. This is achievable when good governance methodology is applied. When governments are accountable in operations, have enough capacity to deliver security services and human development to those governed, peace can be achieved. Goal No. 16:  Access to Just and Peaceful Institutions Models of Good Governance builds on the UNDP’s model. Seyle believes that Governance systems that contribute to stable peace are characterized by: Conor Seyle’s model of good governance i)  having inclusive means of operating; ii) participatory systems that bring the governed into the process of decision making, systems for accountability that ensure transparent and equitable operations, and; iii) enough systemic capacity that they can provide physical security and public goods supporting human development Seyle argues that , they form a mutually reinforcing virtuous cycle that reduces the risk of violence. He affirms that participatory governance supports peace.  Governance systems should provide pathways for citizens to feel that their issues and identity is represented in the decision-making structure in some way.  When systems are not seen as participatory, their legitimacy is challenged, and collective decisions may not be followed. If participation turns into identity-based factionalization leading some groups to feel excluded, Seyle concludes that this can contribute to instability. when all these elements are present These fundamental principles of good governance established by the UNDP and Conor Seyle can be converted into a blockchain-based governance model which is further improved upon with the introduction of such a disruptive technology. Where does Blockchain fit into all of this? The fundamental principles of good governance can be converted into a blockchain-based governance model successfully. Blockchain technology is based upon the principles of trust, transparency and accountability. It's goal is to ensure that individuals have more control and greater access to trustworthy services. Blockchain-based public services can help prevent fraud through greater public auditability, reduce processing costs through automation of operations, streamline administrative processes and improve reconciliation between governments and their people. The best part? Governments around the world are taking note. Alexis Rocamora and Aryanie Amellina published one of the most comprehensive overview and analysis of blockchain and the SDGs. According their findings, 77% of the 42 countries in their survey already had multiple institutions showing interest in blockchain, 17% of those are already planning to develop a national blockchain initiative. Rocamora & Amellina believe that blockchain functionalities (when properly applied to government operations) help address the following Sustainable Development Goals: No. 8: No. 10: No. 11: No. 16: No. 17: Decent work and economic growth Reduced inequalities Sustainable cities and communities Peace, justice and strong institutions Partnerships for the goals One example of implementing a blockchain-based governance model is by digitizing the voting process. , , , and the are already in the development or in pilot stages of creating blockchain-based voting systems. Blockchain-based voting mechanisms, when applied with Seyle’s framework for good governance could provide a legitimate way of ensuring a just and fair electoral process. Sierra Leone Japan Russia Ukraine It is important to note that there are some fundamental issues to consider. Blockchain itself is immutable, but if the encryption scheme used to secure public code is weak, or lacking, then there can be a risk. Digital and e-voting methods are still subject to human flaws, security risks and errors. Blockchain as a technology can potentially make the process more transparent, but all aspects of the technology need to take important measures to protect the identities and information of the voters. Blockchain is an effective tool that can improve upon already existing institutional and governmental mechanisms. It is not the be-all, end-all solution and more than just utilizing blockchain is required to promote peace. But it certainly is a great start when Governments actively work to build trust and ensure  accountability and transparency. Implementing the principles of good governance with blockchain places citizens at the forefront, and can improve realtions between governments and their people. _____________________________ is Laura Marissa Cullell an MA Graduate of the UN University of Peace in International Law and  Human Rights. She wrote her thesis on Blockchain and the Sustainable  Development Goals: Utilizing Disruptive Technologies to Promote Human  Rights, Peace, and Good Governance. She loves puns, cookie dough, glitter, and reading an obscene amount of books at the speed of light. Support her work through Patreon !

Implementing Blockchain for Good Governance. Is it Feasible?

Innovations in Tech Hold the Potential for a Bright Future and Infinite Progress

Credits: Space Odyssey 2001 Becoming a spacefaring civilization is both inspiring and necessary to in case of existential threats that may end civilizations on Earth. Humans are explorers by nature. Early humans stepped foot out of Africa about years ago. However, it was only homo sapiens who moved out 60,000 years ago that seem to have become the forebearers that populated the rest of the world. preserve consciousness 2 million If humans had never taken the risk or found the necessity to venture out of Africa, it is possible that human civilization would have perished. Or, at the very least, the progress we have made thus far would have been unlikely. We built technologies to adapt to harsh conditions that were different from early Africa. Our forefathers and foremothers gave us agriculture, roads, democracy and trade. However, only after the Enlightenment era did we start seeing rapid progress in making the world . a better place Advances in science and technology - the steam engine, air travel, computers, medicine, etc - have tremendously shaped the modern world we are in today. The arrival of the space race in the 1950s and 60s helped us reach for the final frontier. We put a man in space in 1958 and sent a manned mission to Moon and brought them back in 1969. Although interest in outer space gradually started to cool down, the knock-on effects from space technology enabled us to build satellite-based communication, positioning services, earth observation, and that could be used . With SpaceX, its brainchild Starlink, new space companies such as Planet and Relativity Space, we see a renewed interest in Space. Building and deploying constellations of internet satellites will enable connectivity for the remotest of areas. 3D printing rockets and satellites will enable faster and more launches. Mapping the entire world through Earth observation satellites will help us better understand the world and the role of climate change. spin-off technologies on Earth But what about space manufacturing and why is it necessary? Historically, new cities were built alongside ports where trade and economy flourished. In the modern era, cities have thrived on industrialization. Most cities across the world became modern industrial capitals by building factories and supply chains. The same applies to Space. To accelerate humanity's path out to the stars and colonize other planets, we need to industrialize space and build a space economy. If the first big step towards becoming a space-faring civilization is building reusable rockets. The second is industrializing space. The good thing about industrializing space is, besides the necessity to create a space supply chain, space through micro-gravity, or low gravity, that it offers enormous potential in radically shifting manufacturing capabilities for certain products required here on Earth. Chemistry, the underlying science, is not exempt from the effects of gravity, a fundamental force on Earth that influences all systems at a molecular level. From proteins to semiconductors, everything is made of molecules and compounds. Certain earthbound limitations conjure upon how molecules behave due to gravity. However, microgravity is from forces affected by gravity such as: free , the process of deposition of solid material from a state of suspension or solution in a fluid (usually air or water). The absence of sedimentation in microgravity enables the combination of any number of substances that would normally be extremely challenging or impossible to mix evenly on Earth. 1. Sedimentation Buoyancy forces that generate - the transfer of heat due to the bulk movement of molecules within fluids due to temperature gradients and density differences - is absent in microgravity. 2. convection : In presence of gravity, the weight of the fluid on top pushes down on the fluid below it, resulting in hydrostatic pressure gradients. This pressure can be almost completely eliminated in microgravity which then allows other forces such as - the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force - and - the mixing of particles of liquids or gases so that they move from a region of high concentration to one of lower concentration - to dominate. These forces fundamentally transform the behaviour of fluids. 3. Hydrostatic Pressure surface tension diffusion , created by reaction forces on fluid container walls, is absent in microgravity affecting the way proteins and fluids respond. 4. Shear stress There are no directions in microgravity since a spacecraft in free fall results in weightlessness. Additionally, allows materials to levitate and thus removing the need for containers which drastically makes it easy to manufacture materials in a contaminant-free environment. 5. weightlessness The forces mentioned above affect how molecules crystallize. All crystals (diamonds, salts, proteins, etc.) are made of constituents (atoms/molecules/ions) that are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. Eg: Take salt(NaCl), the crystals are made up of Sodium/Na ions and Chlorine/Cl ions and they form a repetitive structure. Take Diamond and Graphite - they are both made of carbon but differ only in their crystal structures giving them completely different properties. The reduction or absence of gravity-driven forces allows for a slower and more orderly arrangement of molecules into the crystal lattice. This enables researchers to better determine the structures that offer high performance. Microgravity applications span across: : The same principle of crystal structure applies to one of the key constituents of life that are vital to the proper functioning of tissues and organs in our bodies: . Each Protein - molecules made of a particular sequence of amino acids - has a unique 3D folded crystal structure that determines its function. Studying the structure enables one to better understand the protein's function and design drugs to work with the proteins and treat diseases. Drug Research Proteins : Many products such as photovoltaic cells, chemical sensors, and optical fibres are multilayered thin films. Manufacturing these products in microgravity offers homogeneity, precise orientation, and stability of multi-layered thin films that increase the performance of these products at least by a factor of 10. Undersea silica fiber optic cables have repeaters that cost 1 Million $ every 50 miles and are subject to excess crystallization. However, cables made in microgravity have 2 orders of less attenuation and require less than 15 times fewer repeaters compared to these silica fiber optic cables. Thin Film Manufacturing ZBLAN : Microgravity can help identify the components of the organisms (bacteria/virus) that facilitate increased virulence in space, and then applies that information to pinpoint targets for anti-microbial therapeutics, including vaccines. Vaccine development experiments : An organ contains multiple tissues made of different layers of cells. Let's suppose there are 3 different layers each with different types of cells - Layer 1 above which is Layer 2 and Layer 3 the topmost. When these layers are printed on Earth, due to the kind of materials and gravity, the layers may end up combining. To combat the effects of gravity, researchers use scaffold structures to support these layers. This limits the types of materials used and the types of cells that thrive in these environments. However, in micro-gravity, the mixing wouldn't happen due to the absence of forces such as gravity and the can develop into complex three-dimensional structures. 3D Bioprinting tissue organs tissues : One of the strongest materials that is both lightweight and conductive known to science is - sheets of graphene. They are extremely difficult to produce on Earth due to convection but microgravity may offer a solution to manufacture them in a robust and scalable process that is commercially viable. Carbon Nanotubes Carbon Nanotubes There are companies working towards enabling in-space manufacturing but understanding the capabilities of different materials in microgravity, preserving the material manufactured for long durations before bringing these materials back to Earth and building an economically viable supply chain system are the challenges that need to be overcome before space manufacturing becomes the norm. Technical Landscape Research in microgravity has been around for 20-25 years. But the viability of commercializing the applications boils down to the economics of orbital manufacturing. At a high level, there are 3 stages involved here: Launching the required materials at an affordable price A standardized autonomous space manufacturing unit/spacecraft Safe return of the manufactured product back here on Earth Until the era of SpaceX, the cost of launching anything into space was prohibitively expensive. But the launch costs have from 50,000$/kg in the 1980s to 5,000$ per kg today. With new smallsat rocket launchers cropping up everywhere, this trend will continue to go further down to at least 3000$/kg or optimistically less than 1000 $/kg by end of this decade. drastically dropped Credits: SpaceX Microgravity experiments have taken place so far in parabolic flights or on the ISS. However, they come with their own set of challenges. Parabolic flights last for a very short duration. While they can be ideal for testing the hardware and conducting research, manufacturing is not an option. The International Space Station (ISS) has been the host for both research experiments and manufacturing activities to date and has propelled the possibilities of in-space manufacturing. However, it has two major concerns: ISS is part of a research community including NASA, ESA, etc, and not a commercial entity. Hence, a need for a new commercial equation that enables an in-space manufacturing economy. The presence of humans/astronauts demands an extremely cautious approach towards manufacturing or conducting research in microgravity, increasing both complexity and cost. Additionally, the presence of humans demands air to be circulated which will hamper the effect of microgravity. The current exorbitant costs of sending and bringing back a human from space also demand completely autonomous manufacturing units in space which is definitely not easy either. Building an autonomous manufacturing space unit that can be launched and returned to Earth is much more economically feasible because it will not require docking mechanisms or the environmental control systems like capsules designed to carry people. In other words, a free-flying spacecraft that can be sent into low Earth Orbit with robotic systems onboard to manufacture high-value products. Different materials require different manufacturing units with different functionalities. Manufacturing protein crystals in space require different capabilities as compared to manufacturing optical fibres. Therefore, it is necessary to standardize spacecrafts based on manufacturing requirements. Additionally, they must also support themselves with solar panels to power themselves throughout the journey, primary batteries to store and distribute power to perform manufacturing activities, propellants to change orbits or descend and other components to ensure automated, free-flying capabilities. The third but most important segment is bringing the spacecraft safely back to earth from orbit. While gravity can assist in helping the spacecraft re-enter, the spacecraft has to tackle the atmosphere and the speed of re-entry (which increases as it gets closer to Earth). Air is made up of molecules, anything that passes through air should push through these molecules. The high speed at which spacecrafts re-enter Earth (thanks to gravity) heats up the air molecules. The heat then breaks the chemical bonds in these air molecules resulting in the electrically charged plasma surrounding the spacecraft. To prevent the spacecraft from burning, a thermal heat shield is required. Additionally, for controlled descent, it is likely that the spacecrafts will carry parachutes to splash down on water. (Although that directly land the spacecraft could be an option in the future if we make advances in technology for landing small spacecrafts, miniaturize the technology, make it fail-proof, and make regulations a little looser.) retro-propulsive thrusters While landing a spacecraft on land is far easier than on water, the current regulatory enivironment is not friendly for such operations. If the economics of orbital manufacturing - launch costs, re-usable spacecrafts, and safe return - turn out to be comparable to manufacturing on Earth, there will be an increase in volume for the launch market, opening doors to industrializing space. And the returns will be enormous which is why so many companies are venturing towards industrializing space. Market Landscape In-space Manufacturing as a commercial opportunity has been explored for at least almost a decade now. , a company recently acquired by Redwire Space, has been one of the biggest players in space manufacturing. They have sent successful missions with facilities that leverage additive manufacturing to produce new materials at the ISS National Lab. Made In Space builds research and manufacturing systems into compact smart containers, called CubeLabs focused on biotech and biomedical applications in microgravity. They also unveiled plans for a fully autonomous robotic orbital platform called ST-42 designed specifically for manufacturing in space. Space Tango is the most recent startup to create a buzz in this 'space'. The company raised 9 Million$ to create a scalable and economically viable system to manufacture products in space that are extremely important on Earth. With a vision to industrialize space, Varda Space aims to start with profitable unmanned in-space factories manufacturing products. Varda Space is a European company that plans to leverage the advantages of a microgravity environment on manufacturing and production. The startup has formed a subsidiary dedicated to in-space biotech specifically called Space Biology Unlimited. Space Cargo Unlimited is a UK start-up that is looking to lead the clean industrial revolution by harnessing space and has raised $600K in seed funding in June 2020. They are developing fully reusable satellites that are designed for manufacturing next-generation super materials in space in order to return to Earth and be used to help move to low carbon technologies. Space Forge Ltd There are a bunch of startups such as , , and that provide services to research institutions to run their microgravity experiments in space and may eventually build factories in Space. , a commercial operator of microgravity research and manufacturing equipment, developed and sent a 3D BioFabrication Facility (BFF) aboard the ISS that bio-printed human tissues and intends to commercialize 3D bioprinting in space. , an Israeli startup growing meat directly from non-GMO animal cells, launched its ‘Aleph Zero’ program focused on cultivating meat for space exploration. The company believes this will enable human life to become multiplanetary and build resilience for food security by producing meat in harsh as well as remote conditions on Earth and beyond. Yuri Luna Researchsat Techshot Inc. Aleph Farms is a company that aims to leverage the miniaturized microgravity lab technology through the end-to-end miniaturized lab systems developed in-house with sensors and readers, enabling unprecedented possibilities to develop new drugs in Space. SpacePharma is a company that develops robotic arms and manufacturing technologies to be deployed aboard the ISS in-space manufacturing to support long-duration manned missions. which recently raised 130 Million $ is building the world's first commercial space station to provide Microgravity-as-a-Platform that will enable microgravity research and product development. Tethers Unlimited Inc. Axiom Space is a space robotics startup developing robots that can conduct tasks in all realms of space development, some of which will include space manufacturing but mostly focused space operations for building Lunar and Martian bases. They build general-purpose robots, task-specific robots, and remote tele-operable robots. GITAI , a subsidiary of Astrotech, is a biotechnology company developing and commercializing novel therapeutic products in microgravity in space. Astrogenetix Resources offers the best resources on startups working towards accelerating the space economy Factories in Space A by Bloomberg covering Made in Space on how space manufacturing could change everything we make. video Also published at https://infinitiventures.substack.com/p/space-manufacturing-microgravity

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